DOE-STD-1129-2015, Tritium Handling and Safe Storage
Functional areas: Safe Storage, Radiation Protection
This Standard provides useful information for establishing processes and procedures for the receipt, storage, assay, handling, packaging, and shipping of tritium and tritiated wastes.
Version history and related documents
Supersedes
Earlier documents this one replaced.
- DOE-HDBK-1129-2008Tritium Handling and Safe Storage (Sep 16, 2015)
Document text
Text extracted from the attached file. Refer to the original document for the authoritative version.
Section 1
i
NOT MEASUREMENT
SENSITIVE
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
September 2015
DOE STANDARD
TRITIUM HANDLING AND SAFE STORAGE
U.S. Department of Energy AREA SAFT
Washington, D.C. 20585
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
TS
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................................. 1
ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 6
1.1 Purpose ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Applicability ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Key References ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Resource Material for Further Information ............................................................................. 12
2.0 TRITIUM .......................................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 Radioactive Properties ............................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Physical Properties ................................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Chemical Properties ................................................................................................................. 20
2.3.1 General Properties .......................................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 General Behavior ............................................................................................................ 20
2.3.3 Behavior Model ............................................................................................................... 20
2.3.4. Plate‐Out ........................................................................................................................ 21
2.3.5 Outgassing ....................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.6 Material Contamination .................................................................................................. 22
2.4 Biological Properties ................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.1 Gaseous Tritium and Tritiated Water ............................................................................. 25
2.4.2 Special Tritium Compounds ............................................................................................ 26
2.5 Preferred Forms........................................................................................................................ 27
Section 2
2.5.1 Characterization of Tritium Forms .................................................................................. 27
2.5.2 Identity of Common Forms ............................................................................................. 28
2.5.3 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 38
3.0 BASIC TRITIUM REGULATORY INFORMATION ................................................................................ 40
3.1 Tritium Accountability and Environmental Considerations ..................................................... 41
3.1.1 Radiological Materials Inventory .................................................................................... 41
3.1.2 Limits for Tritium in Drinking Water and the Environment ............................................ 42
3.1.3 RCRA Applicability ........................................................................................................... 44
3.1.4 CERCLA Applicability ....................................................................................................... 46
3.3 Tritium Facility Safety Analysis and Regulatory Quantity Limits .............................................. 47
3.3.1 Safety Analysis ................................................................................................................ 47
3.3.2 Integrated Safety Management ...................................................................................... 52
3.3.3 Facility Segmentation ...................................................................................................... 53
3.4 Radiological Material Quantity Limits ...................................................................................... 54
3.4.1 Tritium Shipping, Radioactive Material Inventory, Quantity Limits ............................... 54
3.4.2 Tritium Receiving Area, Shipping Area, Quantity Limits ................................................. 55
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
iii
3.5 Tritium Unpackaging, Handling, and Packaging Areas, Quantity Limits ................................... 55
3.6 Tritium Waste Collection and Waste Packaging Area, Quantity Limits .................................... 55
3.7 Tritium Radworker Training ...................................................................................................... 55
3.8 Tritium Focus Group (TFG) ....................................................................................................... 56
4.0 FACILITY DESIGN ............................................................................................................................. 56
4.1 Confinement of Tritium Philosophy ......................................................................................... 56
4.1.1 Tritium Capture, Contain, and Cleanup Process ............................................................. 57
4.1.2 Tritium Cleanup and Removal Systems .......................................................................... 64
4.1.3 Future Directions in Tritium Removal and Cleanup ........................................................ 68
4.1.4 Inspection and Surveillance Requirements .................................................................... 69
4.2 Separation and Purification of Tritium ..................................................................................... 69
Section 3
4.3 Building Ventilation System ...................................................................................................... 70
4.4 Chilled Water System ............................................................................................................... 72
4.5 Seismic and Other Natural Phenomena Design and Evaluation of Structures and Facilities ... 73
4.6 Other Design Considerations .................................................................................................... 74
4.7 Lessons Learned ....................................................................................................................... 75
4.7.1 SNLL Tritium Research Laboratory .................................................................................. 76
4.7.2 SRS Old Tritium Extraction Facility .................................................................................. 78
4.7.3 Component Plugging at SRS Tritium Processing Facility ................................................. 79
4.7.4 Tritium Compatibility Lessons ......................................................................................... 80
4.7.5 Oxygen monitor failures ................................................................................................. 83
4.7.6 Tritium flammability limits in glovebox atmospheres. ................................................... 83
4.7.7 Pantex Tritium Release from Gas Reservoir ................................................................... 85
5.0 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT .................................................................................................................. 86
5.1 Material Compatibility .............................................................................................................. 86
5.1.1 System Design ................................................................................................................. 87
5.1.2 Structural Metals ............................................................................................................ 89
5.1.3 Polymers ......................................................................................................................... 92
5.1.4 Fabrication Cleaning and Testing ................................................................................ 94
5.2 First Wall Design ....................................................................................................................... 95
5.2.1 High‐Pressure Tritium ..................................................................................................... 95
5.2.2 Low‐ and Medium‐Pressure Tritium ............................................................................... 96
5.3 Secondary Wall Design ............................................................................................................. 96
5.3.1 High‐Quality Secondary .................................................................................................. 96
5.3.2 Medium‐Quality Secondary ............................................................................................ 96
5.3.3 Low‐Quality Secondary ................................................................................................... 96
5.4 Cleanup System Design ............................................................................................................ 97
Section 4
5.5 Storage System Design ............................................................................................................. 97
5.5.1 Short‐Term Storage ......................................................................................................... 97
5.5.2 Medium‐Term Storage .................................................................................................... 97
5.5.3 Long‐Term Storage .......................................................................................................... 98
5.6 Surveillance and Maintenance ................................................................................................. 99
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
iv
5.7 Seismic Considerations ............................................................................................................. 99
5.7.1 DOE Natural Phenomena Hazards Requirements .......................................................... 99
5.7.2 Seismic Design and Evaluation of Equipment and Distribution Systems ...................... 100
5.8 Fire Scenarios ......................................................................................................................... 104
5.9 Instrumentation ...................................................................................................................... 105
5.9.1 Tritium Monitoring Systems ......................................................................................... 105
5.9.2 Specialized Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 108
6.0 TRITIUM RECEIVING AND STORAGE .............................................................................................. 111
6.1 Shipping Packages .................................................................................................................. 111
6.1.1 Type A Shipping Packages ............................................................................................. 111
6.1.2 Type B Shipping Packages ............................................................................................. 111
6.2 Product Containers ................................................................................................................. 112
6.2.1 WSRC Product Vessel .................................................................................................... 112
6.2.2 WSRC Hydride Transport Vessel ................................................................................... 112
6.2.3 Recommendations for Improvements for Product Containers .................................... 114
6.3 Valve Container Operations ................................................................................................... 114
6.3.1 Tritium Apparatus, Isolation Valves, and Purge Ports .................................................. 116
6.4 Receiving Tritium .................................................................................................................... 119
6.5 Storage of Packaged Tritiated Materials ................................................................................ 119
6.6 Interim Storage of Tritiated Materials .................................................................................... 120
6.6.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 120
Section 5
6.6.2 Interim Storage Requirements...................................................................................... 120
6.6.3 Exemptions from Nuclear Material Packaging for Storage Requirements ................... 121
6.6.4 Priority for Working off Tritium Containers .................................................................. 122
7.0 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION ............................................................................................ 123
7.1 General Administrative Packaging and Transport Requirements .......................................... 123
7.2 Selection of Proper Packaging ................................................................................................ 124
7.2.1 Form and Quantity of Tritium ....................................................................................... 128
7.2.2 Evaluation of Approved Packaging ............................................................................... 128
7.2.3 Minimum Requirements for Packaging ........................................................................ 129
7.2.4 Onsite versus Offsite Shipments ................................................................................... 130
7.3 Package Loading and Preparation for Shipment .................................................................... 131
7.3.1 Disassembly and Inspection of the Package ................................................................. 131
7.3.2 Package Loading and Assembly Operations ................................................................. 132
7.3.3 Leak Testing .................................................................................................................. 132
7.3.4 Preparation for Shipment ............................................................................................. 133
7.4 Transportation Requirements and Records ........................................................................... 133
7.4.1 Transportation Requirements for Packaging ................................................................ 134
7.5 Quality Assurance/Control Requirements .............................................................................. 135
7.5.1 DOT Quality Control Requirements .............................................................................. 135
7.5.2 Other Quality Assurance Requirements ....................................................................... 136
8.0 TRITIUM WASTE MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................. 136
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
v
8.1 Approved Limits for the Release of Contaminated Materials and Property Containing
Residual Radioactive .............................................................................................................. 137
8.1.1 Release Limit Requirements for Surface‐Contaminated Material ................................ 137
8.1.2 Removable Surface Contamination Measurement Process ......................................... 138
8.1.3 Environmental Discharge Requirements ...................................................................... 141
8.1.4 Tritium‐Contaminated Wastewater .............................................................................. 142
8.2 Waste Characterization .......................................................................................................... 146
Section 6
8.2.1 Waste Knowledge ......................................................................................................... 147
8.2.2 Tritium Disposition Options .......................................................................................... 148
8.2.3 Economic Discard Limit for Tritiated Water ................................................................. 151
8.3 Waste Packaging ..................................................................................................................... 153
8.4 Waste Shipping ....................................................................................................................... 154
APPENDIX A: USEFUL NUMERICAL VALUES ....................................................................................... A‐1
A.1 General Data .......................................................................................................................... A‐1
A.2 General Tritium Data .............................................................................................................. A‐1
A.3 Regulatory Quantities ............................................................................................................ A‐2
A.4 Tritium Dose and Exposure Data ............................................................................................ A‐3
A.5 Tritium Container Data ........................................................................................................... A‐4
A.6 Other Data .............................................................................................................................. A‐6
APPENDIX B: DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................. B‐1
APPENDIX C: ASSAY METHODS .......................................................................................................... B‐1
C.1 Measurement Accuracy and Safeguards and Security ........................................................... C‐1
C.2 Tritium Assay Analysis by PVT Mass Spectrometer ................................................................ C‐2
C.3 Calorimetry Assay ................................................................................................................. C‐17
APPENDIX D: CONTAMINATION AND SURFACE ACTIVITY THRESHOLDS ........................................... D‐1
APPENDIX E: RADIOLOGICAL CONTROL PROGRAMS FOR SPECIAL TRITIUM COMPOUNDS .............. E‐1
E.1 ‐ INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... E‐2
E.1.1 Special Tritium Compounds ...................................................................................... E‐2
E.1.2 Prevalence of STCs in the DOE Complex ................................................................... E‐5
E.1.3 Appendix Overview ................................................................................................... E‐6
E.2 ‐ nature of special tritium compounds ................................................................................... E‐7
E.2.1 General ...................................................................................................................... E‐7
E.2.2 STC Host Materials .................................................................................................... E‐7
Section 7
E.2.3 STC categorization .................................................................................................... E‐7
E.2.4 Sources of STCs ....................................................................................................... E‐10
E.2.5 Hazards Associated with STCs ................................................................................. E‐10
E.2.6 Challenges to Radiological Control Programs ......................................................... E‐11
E.3 – WORKPLACE MONITORING FOR STCs ............................................................................... E‐12
E.3.1 Observed Versus Actual Activity ............................................................................. E‐12
E.3.2 Area Monitoring ...................................................................................................... E‐13
E.3.3 Individual and Workplace Controls for STC‐Contaminated Areas .......................... E‐17
E.4 – INDIVIDUAL MONITORING ................................................................................................ E‐18
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
vi
E.4.1 Identifying Individuals to be monitored ................................................................. E‐19
E.4.2 Air Monitoring for STCs ........................................................................................... E‐19
E.4.3 Radiobioassay ......................................................................................................... E‐20
E.4.4 Organically Bound Tritium (OBT) ............................................................................ E‐21
E.5 – INTAKE AND DOSE ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................... E‐23
E.5.1 Biokinetic and Dosimetric Models .......................................................................... E‐23
E.5.1.5 Dosimetric Models ........................................................................................... E‐32
Figure E.5‐5: GI Tract Biokinetic Model ........................................................................................... E‐32
E.5.2 Internal Dose Determination .................................................................................. E‐35
E.6 WORKPLACE CONTROLS ....................................................................................................... E‐54
E.6.1 Design/Engineered Controls ................................................................................... E‐55
E.6.2 Administrative Controls .......................................................................................... E‐55
ANNEX A – VALUES OF SIGNIFICANT DOSIMETRIC PROPERTIES OF STCS ........................................ E‐68
ANNEX B – INSOLUBLE METAL TRITIDE BENCHMARK ...................................................................... E‐70
ANNEX C – MATHCAD DEFINITIONS AND SUBROUTINES ................................................................. E‐74
ANNEX D ‐ PARAMETERS FOR DISSOLUTION OF INSOLUBLE TRITIATED PARTICULATE MATERIALS E‐83
APPENDIX E ‐ FIGURES: ........................................................................................................ E‐86
APPENDIX E – TABLES: ......................................................................................................... E‐86
APPENDIX F: RADIOLOGICAL TRAINING FOR TRITIUM FACILITIES ...................................................... F‐1
Section 8
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... F‐3
Instructional Materials Development ..................................................................................... F‐4
Training Program Standards and Policies ............................................................................... F‐5
Course‐Specific Information ................................................................................................. F‐10
APPENDIX F2: Instructor's Guide ................................................................................................ F‐13
APPENDIX F3: Student's Guide ................................................................................................... F‐64
APPENDIX G: PRIMER ON TRITIUM .................................................................................................... G‐1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ G‐5
RADIOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS ................................................................................................. G‐5
Hydrogen and Its Isotopes ..................................................................................................... G‐5
Sources of Tritium .................................................................................................................. G‐7
Stable and Unstable Nuclides ................................................................................................ G‐7
Ions and Ionization ................................................................................................................. G‐8
Types of Radiation ................................................................................................................. G‐9
Radioactivity......................................................................................................................... G‐12
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRITIUM ................................................................. G‐13
Nuclear and Radioactive Properties .................................................................................... G‐14
Penetration Depths of Beta Particles ................................................................................... G‐14
Chemical Properties ............................................................................................................. G‐15
Contamination ..................................................................................................................... G‐16
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF TRITIUM ....................................................................................... G‐17
Metabolism of Gaseous Tritium .......................................................................................... G‐18
Metabolism of Tritiated Water ............................................................................................ G‐18
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
vii
Metabolism of Other Tritiated Species ................................................................................ G‐18
Metallic Getters ................................................................................................................... G‐19
Tritiated Liquids ................................................................................................................... G‐19
Section 9
Other Tritiated Gases ........................................................................................................... G‐19
Biological Half‐Life of HTO ................................................................................................... G‐20
Bioassay and Internal Dosimetry ......................................................................................... G‐20
Sampling Schedule and Technique ...................................................................................... G‐21
Dose Reduction .................................................................................................................... G‐22
TRITIUM MONITORING............................................................................................................... G‐23
Air Monitoring ...................................................................................................................... G‐23
Differential Air Monitoring .................................................................................................. G‐24
Discrete Air Sampling ........................................................................................................... G‐24
Process Monitoring .............................................................................................................. G‐25
Surface Monitoring .............................................................................................................. G‐25
Tritium Probes...................................................................................................................... G‐26
Off‐Gassing Measurements ................................................................................................. G‐27
Liquid Monitoring ................................................................................................................ G‐27
RADIOLOGICAL CONTROL AND PROTECTION PRACTICES .......................................................... G‐28
Airborne Tritium .................................................................................................................. G‐28
Secondary Containment ...................................................................................................... G‐28
Temporary Enclosures ......................................................................................................... G‐29
Protection by Local Ventilation ............................................................................................ G‐29
Supplied‐Air Respirators ...................................................................................................... G‐30
Supplied‐Air Suits ................................................................................................................. G‐30
Protection from Surface Contamination .............................................................................. G‐30
Protective Clothing .............................................................................................................. G‐31
EMERGENCY RESPONSE ............................................................................................................. G‐34
Emergency Steps to Take ..................................................................................................... G‐34
Decontamination of Personnel ............................................................................................ G‐34
Section 10
Decontamination of Surfaces .............................................................................................. G‐34
Operational Emergencies ..................................................................................................... G‐35
APPENDIX H: CHARTER OF THE TRITIUM FOCUS GROUP .................................................................. H‐1
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
viii
FIGURES:
FIGURE 2‐1. Rate of tritium decay of one mole of tritium ................................................................... 48
FIGURE 2‐2. Pressure versus time in a container of tritium ................................................................ 49
FIGURE 2‐3. Comparison of aqueous tritium levels found in the nuclear industry ............................. 59
FIGURE 2‐4. Dissociation pressure for uranium, hydride, deuteride, and tritide ................................ 61
FIGURE 2‐5. Plot of a good fit curve for the dissociation pressure of uranium hydride,
deuteride, and tritide ...................................................................................................... 62
FIGURE 2‐6. Dissociation pressure of palladium hydride and deuteride ............................................. 64
FIGURE 4‐1. Secondary containment enclosing a primary container filled with tritium
inside a building equipped with single‐pass ventilation to a stack ................................. 89
FIGURE 4‐2. Secondary confinement ................................................................................................... 91
FIGURE 4‐3.a. Building confinement system ....................................................................................... 94
FIGURE 4‐3.b. Typical double‐containment configuration .................................................................. 94
FIGURE 4‐4. Typical gas‐to‐water tritium removal system flow schematic ......................................... 94
FIGURE 5‐1. Development of the seismic equipment list .................................................................. 133
FIGURE 6‐1. Use of double‐valve container ....................................................................................... 146
FIGURE 6‐2. Purge ports and isolation valves .................................................................................... 147
FIGURE 8‐1. Ultimate disposition of tritiated material ...................................................................... 150
TABLES:
TABLE 2‐1. Derived air concentrations for tritium and tritiated water ............................................... 56
TABLE 2‐2. Dissociation pressure equation parameters for uranium hydride, deuteride,
and tritide .......................................................................................................................... 61
TABLE 2‐3. Dissociation pressure equation parameters for palladium hydride and
deuteride ........................................................................................................................... 64
TABLE 5‐1. Representative equipment found in tritium facilities ..................................................... 131
TABLE 5‐2. SAM technical specifications ........................................................................................... 140
Section 11
TABLE 7‐1. Allowable quantities of tritium per 49 CFR Part 173 ....................................................... 157
1
FOREWORD
Tritium handling practices have evolved over several decades at Department of Energy (DOE) tritium
facilities. The objective has been to accomplish required tritium work while minimizing and
controlling the exposure of workers, the public, and the environment to tritium. This document
provides guidance for the handling, storing, and shipping of tritium.
This Standard is approved for use by all DOE elements and their contractors. DOE technical
standards, such as this Standard, do not establish requirements. However, all or part of the
provisions in a DOE standard can become requirements if either they are explicitly stated to be
requirements in a DOE requirements document or the organization makes a commitment to meet
the Standard in a contract or in an implementation or program plan. The DOE implementation plan
to address the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (DNFSB) Recommendation 2005‐1 committed
to implement interim storage packaging provisions for tritiated materials, which are discussed in
Section 6.6. These packaging provisions are requirements for tritium facilities under the auspices of
the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) and the Environmental Management Program
Office (EM).
The author of the Standard, Bill Weaver of DOE Office of the Chief of Nuclear Safety (CNS), wishes to
acknowledge the contributions of the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) and the Savannah
River Site (SRS) staff, Paul Blanton, Paul Korinko, Greg Staack, and Steve Xiao; Ken Keeler and Mike
Rogers of the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL); Diane Spencer of the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory (LLNL); CNS staff members Steve McDuffie, Marlene Fitzpatrick, and Elaine
Beacom; Nazir Kherani of the University of Toronto; Armando Antoniazzi of Kinectrics, Inc.;
Genevieve Weaver of Penn State; Tracy Getz, Robin Henderson and Robert Waxman of Office of
The General Counsel; and Steve Zobel, a staff member from the DOE Office of the Associate Under
Secretary for Environment, Health, Safety and Security.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
2
ACRONYMS
AEA Atomic Energy Act of 1954
AI Alveolar‐Interstitial region
ALARA As Low As Reasonably Achievable
ALI Annual Limit on Intake
AMAD Activity median aerodynamic diameter
AMD Activity median diameter
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASN French Nuclear Safety Authority
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ARAR Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate (CERCLA)
AU Office of the Associate Under Secretary for Environment, Health, Safety and Security
AWQC Ambient water quality criteria
bb bronchiolar region
BB Bronchial region
Bq Becquerel
BS Bone surface
BTSP Bulk Tritium Shipping Package
BZA Breathing zone air (sampler)
CANDU CANada Deuterium Uranium pressurized reactor
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
Ci Curie
CMD Count median diameter
CoC Certificate of Compliance
CRC Combustion Research Center
CWA Clean Water Act
DCS Derived Concentration StandardD&D Decontamination and Decommissioning
DAC Derived Air Concentration
DBA Design Basis Accident
Section 12
DBE Design Basis Earthquake
DCF Dose Conversion Factor
DCFo Dose Conversion Factor based on observed activity
DCG Derived Concentration Guide
DNFSB Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
DOT U.S. Department of Transportation
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
3
DPM Disintegrations per minute
DSA Documented Safety Analysis
E50 Committed Effective Dose
EDL Economic Discard Limit
EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right‐to‐Know Act
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EH Office of Environment, Safety and Health
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EM Office of Environmental Management
ET Extrathoracic
f1 fraction of radionuclide absorbed from the GI tract
FCA Fire Control Area
FDTAS Field Deployable Tritium Analysis System
FY Fiscal Year
GI Gastrointestinal
HEPA High‐Efficiency Particulate Air
HDPE High‐Density Polyethylene
HIVES Highly Invulnerable Encased Safe
HMR Hazardous Material Regulations
HSV Hydride Storage Vessel
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
HTV Hydride Transport Vessel
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection
IMT Insoluble Metal Tritide
INL Idaho National Laboratory
ISM Integrated Safety Management
ITER International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
ITP Insoluble Tritiated Particulate
keV Kiloelectron volt
LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory
LDPE Low‐Density Polyethylene
LDR Land Disposal Restriction
LLD Lower Limit of Detection
LLI Lower Large Intestine
LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
LN Lymph Node
LSA Low Specific Activity
LSC Liquid Scintillation Counting
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
4
LLW Low‐level waste
MAR Material at Risk
mCi Millicurie
MCL Maximum Contaminant Level
mm Millimeter
mrem Millirem
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NMMSS Nuclear Materials Management and Safeguards System
NNSS Nevada National Security Site
NP Nasal Passage Region
NPDWR National Primary Drinking Water Regulation
NPH Natural Phenomena Hazard
NRC U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRPB National Radiological Protection Board
OBT Organically Bound Tritium
OPI Office of Primary Interest
ORR Operational Readiness Review
OH‐ Hydroxide
P Pulmonary Parenchyma Region
PC Performance Category
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PMR Palladium Membrane Reactor
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
PPPL Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory
psia pounds per square inch absolute
psig pounds per square inch gauge
PSO Program Secretarial Officer
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
PV Product Vessel
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RCS Radiological Control Standard
RM Remainder Organ
RMA Radioactive Materials Area
RTF Replacement Tritium Facility
RWP Radiological Work Permit
S Stomach or specific source organ (used with SEE)
SAES Societá Apparecchi Elettrici e Scientifici
SAF Self Absorption Factor
SAM Surface Activity Monitor
SAR Safety Analysis Report
SCO Surface Contaminated Object
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
5
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SEE Specific Effective Energy
SEL Seismic Equipment List
Section 13
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
SEP Seismic Evaluation Procedure
SI Small Intestine
SMT Stable Metal Tritide
SNL Sandia National Laboratory
SNLL Sandia National Laboratory, Livermore
SNM Special Nuclear Material
SRNL Savannah River National Laboratory
SRS Savannah River Site
SSCs Structures, Systems, and Components
STC Special Tritium Compound
Sv Sievert
T Tissue
TB Trachea and Bronchial Region
TFG Tritium Focus Group
TRL Tritium Research Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratory
TWD Technical Work Document
TSD Treatment, Storage, and Disposal
TSR Technical Safety Requirement
UB Urinary Bladder
UHMWPE Ultra‐High‐Molecular‐Weight Polyethylene
ULI Upper Large Intestine
WETF Weapons Engineering Tritium Facility, Los Alamos National Laboratory
WSRC Washington Savannah River Company
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
6
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are several tritium‐handling publications, including International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Technical Report Series, Number 324, Safe Handling of Tritium, published in 1991, in addition to the
French Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) publications.
Furthermore there are internal documents associated with ITER. Most of the tritium publications
are written from a radiological protection perspective. This Standard provides more extensive
guidance and advice on the full range of tritium operations, shipping, and storage.
1.1 Purpose
This Standard can be used by personnel involved in the full range of tritium handling, from receipt to
ultimate disposal. Issues are addressed at each stage of handling.
1.2 Scope
This Standard provides useful information for establishing processes and procedures for the receipt,
storage, assay, handling, packaging, and shipping of tritium and tritiated wastes. It includes
discussions and advice on compliance‐based issues and adds insight to those areas in which DOE
guidance is unclear. It is intended to be a “living document” that is revised periodically. For
example, planning for and implementing contamination control as part of normal operation and
maintenance activities are important functions in any tritium facility. The best practices from
around the DOE complex are planned for inclusion in each revision of this Standard.
1.3 Applicability
DOE facilities range from small facilities engaged in operations using a few millicuries (mCi)to large‐
scale Hazard Category II Nuclear Facilities.. Guidance in this Standard applies to any scale of
operations.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
7
1.4 Key References
DOE G 151.1‐4, Response Elements.
DOE O 151.1C, Comprehensive Emergency Management System.
DOE O 232.2, Occurrence Reporting and Processing of Operations Information
DOE O 243.1B, Chg. 1, Records Management Program.
DOE O 410.2, Management of Nuclear Materials
DOE O 420.1C, Facility Safety.
DOE G 420.1‐1A, Nonreactor Nuclear Safety Design Guide for use with DOE O 420.1C, Facility
Safety.
DOE O 435.1, Chg. 1, Radioactive Waste Management.
DOE M 441.1‐1, Nuclear Material Packaging Manual.
DOE G 441.1‐1C, Admin Chg. 1, Radiation Protection Programs Guide for Use with Title 10, Code
of Federal Regulations, Part 835, Occupational Radiation Protection.
DOE G 450.4‐1C, Integrated Safety Management System Guide.
DOE O 450.2, Integrated Safety Management.
Section 14
DOE P 450.4A, Integrated Safety Management System Policy.
DOE O 458.1, Admin Chg. 3, Radiation Protection of the Public and the Environment.
DOE O 460.1C, Packaging and Transportation Safety.
DOE G 460.2‐1, Implementation Guide for Use with DOE O 460.2, Departmental Materials
Transportation and Packaging Management.
DOE M 460.2‐1A, Radioactive Material Transportation Practices Manual. DOE O 460.2A,
Departmental Materials Transportation and Packaging Management.
DOE O 461.1B, Packaging and Transportation for Offsite Shipment of Materials of National
Security Interest.
DOE O 461.2, Onsite Packaging and Transfer of Materials of National Security Interest.
DOE O 474.2, Admin Chg. 3, Nuclear Material Control and Accountability.
DOE O 5400.5, Radiation Protection of the Public and the Environment (10‐8‐09) (Archived
Status)
DOE‐HDBK‐1001‐96, Guide to Good Practices for Training and Qualification of Instructors.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
8
DOE‐STD‐1020‐2012, Natural Phenomena Hazards Analysis and Design Criteria for Department
of Energy Facilities.
DOE‐STD‐1027‐92, Hazard Categorization and Accident Analysis Techniques for Compliance with
DOE Order 5480.23, Nuclear Safety Analysis Reports, Change Notice 1, September 1997.
DOE‐STD‐1070‐94, Guide for Evaluation of Nuclear Facility Training Programs.
DOE‐STD‐1098‐2008, Chg. 1, Radiological Control.
DOE‐STD‐1111‐2013, DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program Administration.
DOE‐STD‐1120‐2005, Volume 2, Integration of Environment, Safety, and Health into Facility
Disposition Activities.
DOE‐STD‐1121‐2008, Internal Dosimetry.
DOE‐STD‐3009‐2014, Preparation Guide for U.S. Department of Energy Nonreactor Nuclear
Facility Safety Analyses.
DOE‐HDBK‐3010‐94, Change Notice 1, Volumes 1 and 2, Airborne Release Fraction/Rates and
Respirable Fractions for Nonreactor Nuclear Facilities.
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DOE Office of Nuclear and Facility Safety, Technical Notice 94‐01, Guidelines for Valves in Tritium
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American National Standard. N 13.14 1994. Internal Dosimetry Programs for Tritium
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ANSI N14.5‐2014, Leakage Tests on Packages for Shipment.
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ASN, Tritium White Paper, July 8, 2010 French Nuclear Safety Authority.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
9
10 CFR Part 20, Standards for protection against radiation.
10 CFR Part 71, Packaging and transportation of radioactive material.
10 CFR 71 Subpart H, Quality Assurance
10 CFR Part 830, Nuclear safety management.
10 CFR Part 835, Occupational radiation protection.
Section 15
36 CFR, Chapter XII, National Archives and Records Administration.
40 CFR Part 61, National emission standards for hazardous air pollutants.40 CFR Part 261,
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generators of hazardous waste.
40 CFR 302.4, Designation of hazardous substances.
49 CFR Part 172, Hazardous Materials Table, Special Provisions, Hazardous Materials
Communication, Emergency Response Information, Training Requirements, and Security Plans.
49 CFR Parts 100‐180, DOT Hazardous Materials Regulations.
49 CFR 171.8, Definitions and Abbreviations.
49 CFR Part 173, Shippers – general requirements for shipments and packagings.
49 CFR Part 177, Carriage by public highway.
49 CFR Part 178, Specifications for packaging’s.
62 FR 62079, Joint NRC/EPA Guidance on Testing Requirements for Mixed Radioactive and
Hazardous Waste, November 20, 1997.
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Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1975.
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(3/4), 1979.
ICRP Publication 66, Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection, Annals of the
ICRP 24 (1‐3), 1994.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
10
ICRP Publication 67, Age Dependent Doses to Members of the Public From Intake of
Radionuclides, Part 2, Annals of the ICRP 23 (2‐3), 1994.
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Section 16
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1992.
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Shipment of Radioactive Material, 2012
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Hazardous Wastes: A Guidance Manual, April 1994.
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11
WSRC‐RP‐92‐1161, SRS H1616 Hydride Transport Vessel Qualification Report (U), Revision 5,
1998.
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for Inhalation Exposure, Health Physics, 45, 1983, pp. 791‐794.
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Differential Equations, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Midyear Topical Symposium of the
Health Physics Society, 1984.
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Health Physics, Vol. 75:4, October 1998, pp. 398‐404.
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Characterization of Aerosols From Metal Cutting Techniques Typically Used in Decommission
Facilities, American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 48(11), November 1987, pp. 922‐932.
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Rudran K., Radiation Doses to Lungs and Whole Body from Use of Tritium in Luminous Paint.
Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 25(2), 1988, pp. 117‐125.
Rogers, M., Process History/Technical Basis, Mound Report—Final Draft 2, BWXT of Ohio, Inc.
April 30, 1999.
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12
Traub, R.J., Dosimetry of Metal Tritides, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Report to
DOE/MEMP. May 1999.
Trivedi, A., Percutaneous Absorption of Tritium‐Gas‐Contaminated Pump Oil. Health Physics, 69.
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Watkins, R.A., Rhinehammer, T.B., Griffin, J.F., MLM‐2523(OP), Shipping Container for Tritiated
Water. CONF‐780506‐35. January 1, 1978.
Section 17
1.5 Resource Material for Further Information
Alvani, C., Ciavola, C., Casadio, S., Dibartolomeo, Chemical Aspects of the LiAlO2 Ceramic for Tritium
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Balonov, M.I., Dosimetry and Standardization of Tritium. Energoatomizdat, 1983.
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by Workers. Health Physics. 47:761‐773. 1984.
Bard, S.T., Islam, M. A. Urine Bioassay Data for Two Individuals Following an Exposure to Tritium
Oxide and Titanium Tritide Aerosols during the Opening of a Shipment of Accelerator Targets.
Unpublished report. Bard, S.T.. POB 9537, Fort Collins, CO. 1992.
Barta, K., Turek, K. Size Spectrum of Titanium Tritide Particles. Jadema Energie. 18:347. 1972.
Beavis, L.C., Miglionico, C.J. Structural Behavior of Metal Tritide Films. Journal of Less‐Common
Metals. 27:201‐211. 1972.
Bellanger, G., Rameau, J.J. Influence of the Tritium in Type 316L Stainless Steel on Corrosion. Fusion
Technology. 24:145‐149. 1993.
Biro, J., Feher, I. Tritium Incorporation Hazard Involved in the Use of Tritium Targets. IAEA.
Proceedings Series: Assessment of Airborne Radioactivity. pp. 501‐519. 1967.
Carlson, R.S. Uranium‐Tritium System: The Storage of Tritium. In Radiation Effects and Tritium
Technology for Fusion Reactors. Vol. IV. CONF‐750989. pp. IV36‐IV52. 1976.
Cheng, Y.S. Dissolution Rate and Radiation Dosimetry of Metal Tritides. Proceedings of 1993 DOE
Radiation Workshop. CONF‐9504128. p. K15‐K28. 1995.
Cheng, Y.S., Dahl, A. R., Jow, H.N. Dissolution of Metal Tritides in a Simulated Lung Fluid. Health
Physics. 73:633‐638. 1997.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
13
Cheng, Y.S., Snipes, M.B., Kropf, R.F., Jow, H.N. Radiation Dosimetry of Metal Tritides. Health
Physics. 68:S53. 1995.
Cheng, Y.S., Snipes, M.G., Wang, Y., Jow, H.N. Biokinetics and Dosimetry of Titanium Tritide Particles
in the Lung. Health Physics. 76. February 1999. pp. 120‐128.
Cool, D. A., Maillie, H. D. Tritium Distribution and Excretion Following Intrathecal Instillation of Glass
Microballoon Fragments in Rats. Health Phys. 46:599‐606; 1984.
Corcoran, V.J., Campbell, C.A., Bothwell, P.B. Decontamination and Decommissioning of UK Tritium
Facilities. Fusion Technology. 21:727‐732. 1992.
de Ras, E.M.M., Vaane, J.P., Van Suetendael, W. Investigation of the Nature of a Contamination
Caused by Tritium Targets Used for Neutron Production. In Radiation Protection: Proceedings of the
5th Congress of the International Radiation Protection Society. New York: Pergamon Press. Vol. 1.
1980. 48‐51.
Dickson, R.S. Tritium Interactions with Steel and Construction Materials in Fusion Devises: A
Literature Review. AECL Report AECL‐10208. 1990.
Duong, T., Trivedi, A. Measurement of Tritiated Species in Urine for Characterization of an Exposure.
Health Physics. 70:S82‐S83; 1996.
Ebey, Peter S., LA‐UR‐01‐1825, Conversion of Tritium Gas into Tritiated Water (HTO): A Review with
Recommendations for Use in the WETF SAR, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Eidson, A.F., Griffith, W.C. Techniques for Yellowcake Dissolution Studies In Vitro and Their Use in
Bioassay Interpretation. Health Physics. 46:151‐163. 1984.
Gildea, P. Operating Experience with the Sandia Tritium Facility Cleanup Systems. Fusion Technology.
8:2507‐2510. 1985.
Section 18
Gill, J.T. Tritium on Metal Surfaces – A Quick Review: Also Why Tritiated Rust May be a Hazard
During D&D Operations. Personal communication. Workshop on Tritium Retention and Removal.
Princeton. 1994.
Hirabayashi, T., Saeki, M. Sorption of Gaseous Tritium on the Surface of Type 316L Stainless Steel.
Journal of Nuclear Materials. 120:309‐315. 1984.
Inkrett, W.C.T., Schillaci, M.E., Cheng, Y.S., Efurd, D.W., Little, T.T., Miller, G., Musgrave, J.A.,
Wermer, J.R. Internal Dosimetry for Inhalation of Hafnium Tritide and Other Insoluble Metal Tritide
Aerosols, LANL 1998.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
14
International Atomic Energy Agency, Safe Handling of Tritium: Review of Data and Experience.
Technical Report Series 324, Vienna, Austria, 1991.
International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 72, Age‐Dependent Doses to
Members of the Public From Intake of Radionuclides: Part 5, Compilation of Ingestion and Inhalation
Dose Coefficients. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. 1996.
Jarvis, N.S., Birchall, A. LUDEP 1.0, A Personal Computer Program to Implement the New ICRP
Respiratory Tract Model. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 53:191‐193. 1994.
Kalwarf, D.R. Solubility Classification of Airborne Uranium Products Collected at the Perimeter of the
Allied Chemical Plant, Metropolis, Illinois. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, PNL‐3288RE.
1980.
Kamura, Y., Nishikawa, M. Adsorption/Desorption of Water on Ceramic Materials. Fusion
Technology, 27:25‐38. 1995.
Kocol, H., McNelis, D.N., Moghissi, A.A. A Study of the Particulate and Gaseous Emissions of Tritium
from the Neutron Generator Targets, Health Physics, 31:73‐76. 1976.
Lorenzen, W.A., Ring, J.P. The Management and Operation of a Large Scale Decay‐In‐Storage
Program, paper presented at 27th Mid‐Year Topical Meeting of the Health Physics Society, February
12‐16, 1994. Albany, New York.
Loutfy, R.O., Moravsky, A.P., Wexler, E.M., Production and Characterization of Fullerene Hydrides,
Chapter in Encyclopedia of Materials, Japan,2001.
Matsuzuru, H., Moriyama, N., Ito, A. Leaching Behavior of Tritium from a Hardened Cement Paste.
Annals of Nuclear Energy, 6:417‐423. 1979.
McConville, G.T., Menke, D.A. Removal of Surface Contamination with Tritium Gas. Storage Science
Meeting, 1993.
McConville, G.T., Menke, D,A,, West, D.S., Woods, C.M. Properties of Aged Metal Tritides. DOE
Research and Development Report MLM‐3799, EG&G Mound. 1994.
McConville, G.T., Woods, C.M. Calculation of Tritium Dose from Insoluble Particulates. The 5th
Tritium Symposium, Ispra, Italy,1995. Fusion Technology. 28:905‐909. 1995.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
15
Mercer, T.T. On the Role of Particle Size in the Dissolution of Lung Burdens, Health Physics. 13:1211‐
1221. 1967.
Miller, J.M., Bokwa, S.R. Leaching Behavior of High Specific Activity Titanium Tritide. Chalk River
Nuclear Laboratories AECL‐8770,1985.
Miller, J. M. Leaching Behavior of Metal Hydrides Containing Immobilized Tritium. In Conference
Summaries of Radioactive Waste Management, Winnipeg, Canada: Canada Nuclear Society. CONF‐
820933 54/NTIS, PC a15/MF A01,1982. 192‐198.
Moghissi, A. Alan and Carter, M. W TRITIUM, May 1973
Mueller, W.M., Blackledge, J.P., Libowitz, G.G. Metal Hydrides. New York: Academic Press. pp. 119‐
164. 1968.
Nobile, A. Experience Using Metal Hydrides for Processing Tritium. Fusion Technology. 20:186‐199.
Section 19
1990.
Ortman, M.S., Heung, L.K., Nobile, A., Rabun, R.L. Tritium Processing at the Savannah River Site:
Present and Future. Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology. A8:2881‐2889. 1990.
T.B. Rhinehammer and P.H. Lamberger (eds.), Tritium Control Technology, WASH‐1269, Monsanto
Research Corporation, Miamisburg Ohio, 1973.
Tritium Conferences Proceedings of the (International triennial) Topical Meetings 1980 to present
The 1980 Tritium Conference (Dayton): Proceedings: Tritium Technology in Fission, Fusion and
Isotopic Applications, American Nuclear Society National Topical Meeting, published by the
Southwest Ohio Section of the ANS.
The 1985 Tritium Conference (Dayton): Proceedings of the Second National Topical Meeting on
Tritium Technology In Fssion Fusion and Isotopic Applications, Fusion Technology Volume 8, Number
2, Part 2, September 1985.
The 1988 Tritium Conference (Toronto): Proceedings of the Third Topical Meeting on Tritium
Technology in Fission, Fusion and Isotopic Applications', Fusion Technology Volume 14, Number 2,
Parts 2A and 2B, September 1988.
The 1991 Tritium Conference (Albuquerque): Proceedings of the Fourth Topical Meeting on Tritium
Technology in Fission, Fusion and Isotopic Applications, Fusion Technology Volume 21, Number 2,
Part 2, March 1992.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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The 1995 Tritium Conference (Belgirate, Italy): Proceedings of the Fifth Topical Meeting on Tritium
Technology in Fission, Fusion and Isotopic Applications, Fusion Technology Volume 28, Number 3,
Part 2, October 1995.
The 2001 Tritium Conference (Tsukuba, Japan): Proceedings of the Sixth Topical Meeting on Tritium
Technology, Fusion Science and Technology Volume 41, Number 3 (2002).
The 2004 Tritium Conference (Baden‐Baden, Germany): ): Proceedings of the Seventh International
Conference on Tritium Science and Technology, Fusion Science and Technology, Volume 48, Number
1, July/August 2005.
The 2007 Tritium Conference (Rochester): Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on
Tritium Science and Technology, Fusion Science and Technology, Volume 54, Number 1 and Number
2, August 2008.
The 2010 Tritium Conference (Nara, Japan): Proceedings of the Ninth Topical Meeting on Tritium
Technology, Fusion Science and Technology Volume 60, Numbers 3 & 4 (2010).
The 2013 Tritium Conference (Nice, France): Proceedings of TRITIUM 2013 (Tenth Topical Meeting),
Fusion Sci. Technol., vol. 67, no. 2 & 3 (2015).
Richardson, R.B., Hong, A. Microdosimetry of Tritiated Particulates in Alveolar Sacs. In
Microdosimetry: An Interdisciplinary Approach (editors Goodhead, D.T., O’Neil, P., Mentzel, H.G.)
Cambridge, UK. The Royal Society of Chemistry,1997.
Richardson, R.B., Hong, A. Dose to Lung from Inhaled Tritiated Particles, Health Physics Journal.
September (2001).
Rudran, K. Radiation Doses to Lungs and Whole Body from Use of Tritium in Luminous Paint Industry.
Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 25:117‐125. 1998.
Schober, T., Trinkaus, H., Lasser, R. A TEM Study of the Aging of Zr Tritides. Journal of Nuclear
Material. 141:453‐457. 1986.
Sowell, C.V., Arent, L.J. Tritium Contamination Discovered at EG&G/EM in North Las Vegas, Nevada.
Health Physics. 70:S47; 1996.
Stevens, L., Phillips, M. Health Physics Lessons Learned from the DOE Moratorium on Mixed Waste,
27th Mid‐Year Topical Meeting of the Health Physics Society, February 12‐16, 1994. Albany, New
Section 20
York.
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Strom, D.J., Stewart, R.D., McDonald, J.C. Spectral Emissions and Dosiemtry of Metal Tritide
Particulates. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 98:389‐400. 2002.
Villagran, J.E., Whillans, D.W. Radiation Dose to Lung Cell Populations Resulting from Inhalation of
Titanium Tritide Particles. Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, 1984
Voss, J.T., LA‐UR‐00‐2584, Los Alamos Radiation Monitoring Notebook (2000)
Wang, Y.S., Cheng, Y.S., Snipes, M.B., Jow, H. N. Metabolic Kinetics and Dosimetry of Titanium Tritide
Particles in the Lung. Health Physics. 70:S82‐S83. 1996.
Woehr, W.J., Gatami, A., Holodny, E. I. Radioactive Waste Volume Reduction in a University/Hospital
Setting, 27th Mid‐Year Topical Meeting of the Health Physics Society, February 12‐16, 1994. Albany,
New York.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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2.0 TRITIUM
Isotopes are elements that have the same atomic number (same number of protons in the nucleus)
but different atomic mass (i.e., the total of protons and neutrons in the nucleus). There are three
naturally occurring isotopes of hydrogen. Ordinary hydrogen, referred to as protium (
1
1 H, atomic
mass of 1), is the most abundant element in the universe and has one proton in the nucleus. Heavy
hydrogen, referred to as deuterium ( Hଵ
ଶ or D, atomic mass of 2), makes up about 0.015 percent of
the hydrogen, and has one proton and one neutron in the nucleus. Radioactive hydrogen, referred
to as tritium (
3
1H or T, atomic mass of 3), has one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus. Refer to
Appendix A for basic information on tritium, its properties, and compounds.
2.1 Radioactive Properties
Tritium is a beta emitter. It decays to 3He by emitting a beta particle (electron) and an antineutrino
from one of the neutrons in the nucleus. The energy of the beta particle varies from 0 to 18.6
kiloelectron‐volts (keV) with an average energy of 5.69 keV. For scientific purposes, the generally
accepted value for the half‐life of tritium, as measured by Mound Laboratories, is 12.323 ± 0.004
years (4500.88 ± 1.46 days). For DOE accountability purposes, the half‐life of tritium is 12.33 +/‐
0.06 years. Figure 2‐1 shows the rate of decay of one mole of tritium over six half‐lives.
1) Figure 2‐1: the rate of decay of one mole of tritium over six half‐lives
mHe3At-t
mT2At-t
mTotAt-t
m=moles
m (T2 at t years) = m (T2 initial) e {[t(years) x ln 0.5]/12.323}
m (He3 at t years) = 2 m (T2 initial) {1 - e{[t(years) x ln 0.5]/12.323} }
m (T2 + He3 at t years) = m (T2 initial) {2 - e {[t(years) x ln 0.5]/12.323} }
Moles of T2 and 3He Versus Time, Per Mole of Tritium at the Start, in a Container
Starting with Pure Tritium at t = 0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
0.000 3.081 6.162 9.242 12.323 15.404 18.485 21.565 24.646 27.727 30.808 33.888 36.969 40.050 43.131 46.211 49.292 52.373 55.454 58.534 61.615 64.696 67.777 70.857 73.938
Elapsed Time in Years in Increments of 1/4 Half-Life
M
o
le
s
P
er
M
o
le
o
f
T
ri
ti
u
m
a
t
t=
0 m He3 at t
m T2 at t
m Tot at t
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
19
2.2 Physical Properties
Tritium gas is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and radioactive. Tritium has a high coefficient of
diffusion. It readily diffuses through porous substances such as rubber and can also diffuse through
metals.
Section 21
As tritium decays in a container of constant volume at a constant temperature, the tritium partial
pressure decreases and the partial pressure of 3He increase. The pressure in the container
approaches twice that of the original container pressure. The rate of pressure change over time is
shown in Figure 2‐2.
Other properties of tritium are listed below. Additional characteristics are given in Appendix A.
• Atomic weight = 3.01605
• Gram molecular weight = 6.03210
• Diameter of a tritium atom (approximate) = 1.1 Angstroms
• Dissociation energy, T2 to 2T = 4.59 eV
• Ionization energy, T to T+ e− = 13.55 eV
• Half‐life = 12.323 +/− 0.004 years
In this Standard, tritium in the form of the oxide (HTO, DTO, and T2O), unless otherwise specified, is
HTO. Likewise, tritium in its elemental form (HT, DT, and T2) is HT.
2) Figure 2‐2: Pressure versus time in a container of tritium
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.00 12.32 24.64 36.96 49.29 61.61 73.93
Time in Years
Time Period Shown = 6 Half-Lives
P
re
ss
u
re
-
A
n
y
U
n
it
s
T2 Partial Pressure
3He Partial Pressure
T2 Partial Pressure + 3He
Partial Pressure
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
20
2.3 Chemical Properties
2.3.1 General Properties
The electronic configuration of tritium is the same as protium and deuterium. The chemical
properties of the isotopes are also the same. The rates of reaction vary for the different isotopes
due to the difference in the atomic masses. Additionally, the energy provided by the radioactive
decay of tritium provides the activation energy required so that some reactions will occur with
tritium that will not occur with deuterium or hydrogen.
Hydrogen is present in almost all materials. If tritium is present in a material containing hydrogen,
the tritium atoms will exchange with hydrogen atoms to form a tritiated molecule of the material.
2.3.2 General Behavior
A chemical restatement of Newton’s Third Law of Motion, Le Chatelier’s Principle, states that when
a system at equilibrium is subjected to a perturbation, the response will be such that the system
eliminates the perturbation by establishing a new equilibrium. When applied to situations when the
background tritium levels are increased in nature the reactions will be shifted to the right in order to
adjust to the new equilibrium conditions by readjusting to the isotopic ratios.
CH4 + 2T2 CT4 + 2H2
2H2O + T2 2HTO + H2
The inverse situation also applies in that, when the background tritium levels are decreased, the
reactions will be shifted back to the left, by again readjusting to the isotopic ratios; i.e.,
CH4 + 2T2 CT4 + 2H2
2H2O + T2 2HTO + H2
When Le Chatelier’s Principle is applied to a sequential set of reactions like those depicted above, it
shows that exchange reactions tend to behave as springs, constantly flexing back‐and‐forth,
readjusting to changing energy requirements, in a constantly changing attempt to establish a new
set of equilibrium conditions. Since elemental hydrogen, regardless of its form can be
expected to dissolve to some extent in virtually any material, Le Chatelier’s Principle can be
applied to the solubility reactions as well on solubility reactions.
2.3.3 Behavior Model
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
21
Starting with the assumption that all three hydrogen isotopes are in equilibrium with each other, in
Section 22
the nominal isotopic ratios and applying Le Chatelier’s Principle. From both, we get the relationship,
2H2 + 2D2 + 2T2 H2 + HD + D2 + HT + DT + T2
In the Environment, virtually all of the tritium exists as water vapor. Applying this situation for the
natural conversion to water and/or water vapor gives
2H2O + 2D2O + 2T2O H2O + HDO + D2O + HTO + DTO + T2O
Furthermore, assume that the surfaces of all bound objects are coated with a series of mono‐
molecular layers of water vapor and that the innermost layers of water vapor are very tightly bound
to the actual surface, that the intermediate layers of water vapor are relatively tightly to relatively
loosely bound, and that the outermost layers of water vapor are very loosely bound.
When an overpressure of tritium is added to the system, a perturbation is introduced and Le
Chatelier’s Principle indicates that the tritium levels in the mono‐molecular layers of water will be
shifted to the right. Tritium is incorporated first into the loosely bound, outer layers, then into the
intermediate layers, and finally into the very tightly bound, near surface layers.
When the overpressure is removed, the system experiences a new perturbation. In this case,
however, the perturbation is in the negative direction, and the system becomes the entity that
contains the excess tritium. Le Chatelier’s Principle, in this case, indicates that the tritium levels
in the mono‐molecular layers of water will be shifted back to the left. The tritium that had
previously been incorporated into the mono‐molecular layers now begins to move out of the
layers, in an attempt to return to background levels. The movement of tritium into the mono‐
molecular layers of water vapor is generically referred to as “plate‐out.” The movement of
tritium out of the mono‐molecular layers of water vapor is generically referred to as
“outgassing.”
2.3.4. Plate‐Out
When the concentration gradients have been small and/or the exposure times have been short, only
the outermost, loosely bound, mono‐molecular layers of water vapor will be affected. Under such
circumstances, the surface contamination levels will range from no detectable activity to very low
levels; that is, up to a few tens of disintegrations per minute per 100 square centimeters (dpm/100
cm
2
). Since only the outermost mono‐molecular layers are affected, and since these layers are
easily removed by a simple wiping, the mechanical efforts expended to perform decontamination on
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
22
such surfaces will, if any, be minimal. When the concentration gradients have been relatively large
and/or the exposure times have been relatively long, the affected mono‐molecular layers will range
down into the intermediately bound layers (i.e., the relatively tightly to relatively loosely bound
layers). Under such circumstances, the surface contamination levels will range from relatively low to
relatively high (i.e., from a few hundred to a few thousand dpm/100 cm
2
). Because the tritium has
now penetrated beyond those levels that would normally be easily removed, mechanical efforts
expended to decontaminate such surfaces will become more difficult. When the concentration
gradients have been large and/or the exposure times have been long, the affected mono‐molecular
layers will range all the way down into the very tightly bound layers. The tritium will have
Section 23
penetrated down into the actual surface of the material. Under such circumstances, the surface
contamination will range from relatively high to very high levels (i.e., from a few tens of thousands
to several hundred thousand dpm/100 cm
2
), and that mechanical efforts expended to
decontaminate such surfaces could be very difficult.
2.3.5 Outgassing
The phenomenon of outgassing is rarely a problem under the first of the exposure situations
described above (i.e., situations in which the concentration gradients have been small and/or the
exposure times have been short). However, when systems that have been exposed to even small
amounts of tritium for long‐to‐very‐long periods of time are suddenly introduced to room air, or any
sudden change in its equilibrium situation, reactions can be thought of as springs, and the initial
phenomenon of outgassing can be described as damped harmonic motion. Under such
circumstances, therefore, a relatively large, initial “puff” of HTO will be released from the mono‐
molecular layers of water vapor, followed by a relatively long, much smaller trailing release.
Because several curies of HTO can be released in a few seconds, and several tens of curies can be
released in a few minutes, the speed of the “puff” portion of the release is quick. The duration of
the trailing portion of the release can be lengthy. Depending on the concentration gradients
involved and/or the time frames involved in the plate‐out portion of the exposure, the trailing
portion of the release can easily last from several days to several months or even years. The general
derivation of tritium room concentration discussed in section 4.1.2 includes terms associated with a
long outgassing period although they are commonly ignored in most practical applications. As the
trailing portion of the release asymptotically approaches zero, the outgassing part of the release
becomes too small to measure on a real‐time basis, and the tritium levels involved in any given
release can only be measured by surface contamination measurement techniques.
2.3.6 Material Contamination
When an overpressure of tritium is added to the system (i.e., the surface of an idealized
material), Le Chatelier’s Principle indicates that the tritium levels in the mono‐molecular layers
of water will be shifted to the right; that is,
2H2O + 2D2O + 2T2O H2O + HDO + D2O + HTO + DTO + T2O
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
23
Tritium is incorporated first into the loosely bound, outer layers, then into the intermediate layers,
and finally into the very tightly bound, near‐surface layers. As the tritium loading in the near‐
surface layers builds, the disassociation processes that proceed normally as a result of the tritium
decay make an overpressure of tritium available in a mono‐molecular form (i.e., as T). Relative to
the normal amounts of elemental hydrogen that can be expected to be dissolved in the material, the
availability of excess tritium in the mono‐molecular form represents a different type of perturbation
on a system, and the available tritium begins to dissolve into the actual surface of the bulk material.
As the local saturation sites in the surface of the bulk material begin to fill, the tritium dissolved in
the surface begins to diffuse into the body of the bulk material; at that point, the behavior of the
tritium in the body of the bulk material becomes totally dependent on the material in question.
Section 24
Elemental hydrogen, regardless of its form (H2, D2, T2, and all combinations thereof), can be
expected to dissolve to some extent in virtually all materials. As a general rule, the solubility of
tritium in pure metals and/or ceramics has a minimal effect, at normal room temperatures and
pressures, except for the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement. For alloyed metals, such as stainless
steel, similar considerations apply, again, at normal room temperatures and pressures. For alloyed
metals, however, additional consideration is given to the possible leaching of impurities from the
alloyed metal, even at normal room temperatures and pressures. In LP‐50 containment vessels, for
example, the formation of relatively large amounts of tritiated methane (i.e., up to 0.75 percent
mole percent of CT4) has been noted after containers of high‐purity tritium have been left
undisturbed for several years. The formation of the tritiated methane, in this case, has long been
attributed to the leaching of carbon from the body of the stainless steel containment vessel.
Under increased pressures (e.g., from a few tens to several hundred atmospheres), however, the
general rules no longer apply for, in addition to the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement and
possible leaching effects, helium embrittlement is also possible. Helium embrittlement tends to
occur as a result of the dissolved tritium decaying within the body of the material, the resultant
migration of the helium‐3 atoms to the grain boundaries of the material, the localized
agglomerations of the helium‐3 atoms at the grain boundaries, and the resultant high‐pressure
build‐ups at these localized agglomerations. Under increased temperature situations, the matrix of
solubility considerations becomes even more complicated because virtually all solubility reactions
are exponentially dependent on temperature. In the case of diffusional flow through the walls of a
containment vessel, for example, it can be assumed that steady‐state permeation will have been
reached when
ܦ ∗ ݐ
ܮ
ൌ 0.045
where D = the diffusion rate in cm
2
/sec, t = the time in seconds, and L = the thickness of the
diffusion barrier. For type 316 stainless steel, the value for the diffusion rate is
ܦ ൌ 4.7 ∗ 10െ3
݁ሺെ
12,900
ܴܶ ሻ
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
24
and the corresponding value for R, in the appropriate units, is 1.987 cal/mole K. With a nominal wall
thickness of 0.125 inches (i.e., 0.318 cm), this Equation indicates that it will take about 875 years to
reach steady‐state permeation, at a temperature of 25
o
C. At 100
o
C, the time frame will be reduced
to about 11‐years, and at 500
o
C, it only takes about 12‐hours.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
25
2.4 Biological Properties
2.4.1 Gaseous Tritium and Tritiated Water
The body does not readily absorb H2, HT, HD, D2, DT, or T2 from inhaled gases or through the skin. If
inhaled in elemental form, almost all tritium in the gas is exhaled. Only a very small fraction is
retained in the lungs.
Tritium in the form of water (HTO, DTO, and T2O) is absorbed through the skin and in the lungs from
inhaled gases. Tritium in water form is readily retained in the body and remains with a biological
half‐life of approximately 10 days. Due to the body’s ready adsorption of tritium in the form of
tritiated water, exposure to tritiated water in air is on the order of 10,000 times more hazardous
Section 25
than exposure to gaseous tritium (HT, DT, and T2).
The Derived Air Concentration (DAC) for tritium is the airborne concentration that, if inhaled over a
one‐year period, would produce approximately a 5‐rem dose to the “average” worker. The DAC is
derived by the formula:
DAC = ALI/2400 DAC = derived air concentration (µCi/ml)
ALI = annual limit on intake (Ci)
2400 = breathing volume for the average worker over 1 year in m3
= .02 m3/min x 60 min/hr x 40 hr/wk x 50 wk/yr
The DACs for elemental tritium and tritiated water1,2 are listed in Table 2‐1.
1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Federal Guidance Report No. 11, Table 1 Limiting Values of
Radionuclide Intake and Air Concentration and Dose Conversion Factors for Inhalation, Submersion, and
Ingestion, September 1988
2 10 CFR Part 835, Appendix A
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
26
2.4.2 Special Tritium Compounds
Special tritium compounds (STCs) are defined as any compound, except for H2O and H2, that
contains tritium, either intentionally (e.g., by synthesis) or inadvertently (e.g., by contamination
mechanisms). Examples of STCs are metal tritides and organically bound tritium.
Special tritium compounds differ from the more common forms of tritium (elemental tritium and
tritium oxide) in a variety of characteristics, including particle sizes, chemical behavior, and
biological properties when ingested, absorbed, or inhaled into the human body. The physical
properties of special tritium compounds may make their detection, characterization, and
subsequent assessments of hazards and exposure effects (i.e., individual dose assessments) difficult.
As a result of these unique behaviors, specific guidance has been developed (see Appendix E) to
facilitate the development and implementation of appropriate protective programs.
Although the DOE radiological protection community has been aware of STCs for many years, to
date their impact has been limited by the design features that are incorporated into DOE facilities
that handle significant quantities of tritium. These design features include various forms of material
containment and control, such as gloveboxes and high‐efficiency particulate air (HEPA)‐filtered
ventilation systems that effectively prevent significant releases of STCs to occupied areas of the
workplace or the environment. Recently, sensitivity to STC contamination has been increased as a
result of recent DOE activities involving decontamination and decommissioning of older facilities.
These activities may compromise the effectiveness of the installed design features and allow
releases of STC contamination to the surrounding areas. Such releases may cause exposures to
individuals in the area and releases of STCs to the environment, both on‐ and off‐site. In light of such
experiences, DOE suggests that individuals setting up programs for radiological control of STCs
contact sites that either work, with or have worked, with tritium to learn of their experiences with
STCs.
Appendix E (formerly DOE‐HDBK‐1184‐2004) has been prepared by DOE to assist its employees and
contractors in developing and implementing radiation protection programs that will provide
adequate protection against the hazards presented by special tritium compounds.
µCi/ml Bq/m3
HT
HTO
2E‐01
2E‐05
Section 26
9E9
7E05
1) Table 2‐1: Derived air concentrations for tritium and tritiated water
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
27
2.5 Preferred Forms
Most tritium in the DOE complex exists as a gas, in the form of tritiated water, or as a metal tritide.
The preferred form of tritium is dependent upon its use in a process, length of storage, or its
classification as a waste.
2.5.1 Characterization of Tritium Forms
2.5.1.a Gaseous Tritium
The use, transfer, storage, and shipment of gaseous tritium at or near atmospheric pressure have
been safely used for over fifty years in the DOE complex. Gaseous tritium at or near atmospheric
pressure occupies 22.414 L/mole at 0C, and approximately 24.2 L/mole at room temperature, and
requires approved packages for shipment in either Type A or B quantities. If the containers are not
properly designed or if they are damaged, the gas can leak from the container into the environment.
Gaseous tritium at ambient pressure is easily handled by most gas handling systems and is a good
source for general‐purpose use. At low pressure and temperature, the tritium does not penetrate
deeply into the container wall. Helium and tritium embrittlement of the container wall is not a
significant issue at low pressures even after several years of exposure. As tritium decays, the
pressure in the container increase (see Figure 2‐2) due to the generation of the monatomic gas 3He.
This pressure increase, at most, would only be double the initial pressure. This factor has to
accounted for during the initial design of the vessel so it does not become an issue later.
Gaseous tritium at high pressure takes up less space but is more difficult to contain in part due to
the potential for tritium and helium embrittlement of the vessel materials. This embrittlement
increases the probability of a tritium leak or catastrophic container failure. Unloading high‐pressure
gas requires specifically designed systems and experienced, skilled operators.
2.5.1.b Metal Tritides
Metal tritides reduce the overall volume of the stored tritium, but some of the finely divided metals
used are pyrophoric. Some metals form low‐melting‐point alloys with the materials used in the
construction of the metal tritide containers. Others require extremely high temperatures in order to
recover tritium from the material. Depending on the individual design, the pressure in some vessels,
containing tritium as a metal hydride, may increase by more than a factor of two during the life of
the vessel. This can become problematic for shipping and disposal. Tritium as a hydride occupies
very little volume but the decay helium‐3, in some hydrides, will pressurize any open volume in the
vessel. If the vessel is designed with little expansion volume then the helium‐3 pressure can be
significantly more than twice the loading pressure.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
28
2.5.1.c Tritiated Water
Tritium in the form of T2O may be difficult to store for long periods in part due to its corrosive
properties. Experiments with T2O indicate that pure T2O is corrosive and as the percentage of T2O
in the subject water increases so does its corrosivity. This corrosiveness is likely due to tritium oxide
generating free radicals (OH−) from radiolytic decomposition of water in addition to extra energy
from beta decay impinging on surrounding molecules. Additionally, pure T2O, like distilled H2O, will
Section 27
dissolve many materials. No data currently exist that quantify the degree of corrosiveness;
therefore, there is no basis to definitively state that the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
threshold of corrosivity (i.e., a characteristic of hazardous waste), defined in Title 40 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR), Section 261.22, is not exceeded. The author believes, however, that only
a high‐purity product, and not waste, would have a reasonable chance of exceeding this threshold.
Pursuant to the RCRA regulations, it is the responsibility of the waste generator to determine if that
waste is subject to the hazardous waste requirements [40 CFR 262.11]. A broader discussion of the
relationship between tritiated water and hazardous wastes is contained in Section 3.1.3. Note that
for transportation purposes, DOT has specific defining criteria for corrosive materials that is
different from that of the EPA; see 49 CFR 173.136‐137. Dilute tritiated water recovered from
tritium removal systems, although not at the EPA threshold has still proven to be somewhat
corrosive, due in part to the other constituents. In a severe case, storage of tritiated water
recovered from tritium removal systems in liquid form at concentrations as low as a few curies per
milliliter has corroded through the weld area of stainless steel vessels after only a few days of
exposure. In this specific example, it is probable that the extreme corrosive nature of this dilute
tritiated water was due, in large measure, to chlorine contamination of the catalyst in the tritium
removal system. This corrosion is evidently inhibited by absorption of the tritiated water on clay or
in molecular sieve material.
Figure 2‐3 provides a comparison of the various concentrations of tritiated water found throughout
the nuclear industry.
2.5.2 Identity of Common Forms
Tritium is usually supplied in gaseous or uranium tritide form. Other forms are also available but are
not in common use for bulk shipment.
2.5.2.a Gas
In gaseous form, tritium is usually supplied at a purity of 90 to 95 percent tritium (99 percent in
research applications) with deuterium and protium as the primary impurities.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
29
2.5.2.b Metal Tritides
The use of metal tritide storage beds is one of the most convenient ways of handling tritium. The
metal tritide beds have different operating parameters and characteristics, and there are
advantages and disadvantages in use of the different materials.
2.5.2.b (1) Uranium
Uranium is currently the most useful material for general‐purpose tritium storage beds. The
equation form for the dissociation pressure of uranium tritide, deuteride, and hydride for the
pressure in millimeters of mercury is, Pmm = 10 (‐A/T +B), where A and B are parameters listed in Table
2‐3. Washington Savannah River Company (WSRC) has determined that in the hydride transport
vessel (HTV), for a uranium‐to‐tritium ratio of 1:2.9 in the HTV vessel, the equation is
Patm = 10(‐4038.2/T + 6.074)
At room temperature, tritium in the presence of uranium powder forms uranium tritide. The tritium
partial pressure in the bed is very low. As a result, at room temperature the bed acts as a vacuum
pump that getters all of the hydrogen isotopes. The impurity gases that may be present, such as
3He, N2, O2, or Ar, either remain in the overpressure gas in the bed or react with uranium to form
Section 28
stable compounds. Inert gases, such as Ar, will remain in the overpressure gas, and can be removed
by pumping off with a vacuum pump after the pressure has stabilized; however, 3He cannot be
pumped off without first heating the bed. N2 and O2 will react chemically with the uranium to form
stable uranium compounds in the bed, and, therefore, cannot be pumped off at all.
3) Figure 2‐3: Comparison of aqueous tritium levels found in the nuclear industry
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
30
As the temperature of the bed is increased, the tritium partial pressure increases as a function of
temperature. Depending upon the U:T ratio, it can reach a pressure of around 500 pounds per
square inch absolute (psia) at 600°C. The tritium may be transferred into and out of manifolds,
containers, etc., by heating the bed and then cooling it to room temperature. The general form of
the equation for the dissociation pressure, P, in millimeters of mercury (mm) for uranium hydride,
deuteride, and tritide is:
݉݉ܲ ݈݃ ൌ െ ܣ/ܶ ܤ
or
ܲ݉݉ ൌ 10– ሺܣ/ܶሺܭሻሻ ܤ
where
ܶ ൌ ሻܭሺ ݁ݎݑݐܽݎ݁݉݁ݐ
The values for A and B for hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, determined by several different
investigators, are listed in the following paragraphs, and the results are shown in Table 2‐2 and
plotted in Figure 2‐4. Figure 2‐5 is a plot of the general characteristics of uranium hydride,
deuteride, and tritide.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
31
Metal
Tritide Reference
Temperature
Range (oC)
Investigated
A
(/Kelvin) B
Temperature
(C) required to
generate a
pressure of
1 atmosphere
UH3 Spedding, et al.
Destriau & Seriot
Wicke & Otto
Mogard & Cabane
Libowitz & Gibb
260 to 430
243 to 412
200 to 430
500 to 650
450 to 650
4500
4255
4450
4480
4410
9.28
9.08
9.20
9.20
9.14
430
415
434
435
432
UD3 Spedding, et al.
Destriau & Seriot
Wicke & Otto
unspecified
unspecified
unspecified
4500
4401
4500
9.43
9.01
9.40
414
445
417
UT3 Flotow & Abraham
WSRC
unspecified
unspecified
4471
4038.2
9.461
6.074
408
unspecified
2) Table 2‐2: Dissociation pressure equation parameters for uranium hydride, deuteride, and tritide
4) Figure 2‐4: Dissociation pressure for uranium, hydride, deuteride, and tritide
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440
Temperature in Degrees Celsius
D
is
s
o
c
ia
ti
o
n
P
re
s
s
u
re
i
n
t
o
rr
UT3-FlAb
UD3-Spd
UD3-DeSe
UD3-WiOt
UH3-Spd
UH3-DeSe
UH3-WiOt
UH3-LiGi)
UH3-MoCa
UD3
UT3
UH3
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
32
Each time the tritium is cycled into the system manifolds, it picks up impurity gases. These
impurities collect in the bed overpressure gas and may be pumped off to remove them after each
heating/cooling cycle. Active impurity gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, are irreversibly removed
by reaction with the uranium.
Disadvantages to using uranium tritide beds are: 1) uranium powder is pyrophoric; 2) the
generation of significant tritium pressure requires a high temperature that results in permeation of
tritium through the vessel wall; and 3) the capacity is also permanently reduced by exposure to
active impurity gases.
2.5.2.b (2) Palladium
Section 29
Palladium is a metallic element of Group 8 in the Periodic Table. The symbol for palladium is Pd, the
atomic number is 46, the atomic weight is 106.42, and the melting point is 1554.9°C.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
D
is
so
ci
at
io
n
P
re
ss
u
re
i
n
A
tm
o
sp
h
er
es
Temperature in Degrees Celsius
Dissociation Pressure of Uranium Tritide, Deuteride, and Hydride
UD3
UT3
UH3
Good fit equations for the dissociation pressure of uranium tritide, deuteride, and hydride in units of
atmospheres. The data from various experimenters was used to extend the range from 200 °C to 650 °C
.
PatmUD3={10-(4500/T deg K) +9.4 }/760 PatmUT3={10-(4471/T deg K) +9.461 }/760 PatmUH3={10-(4525/T deg K) +9.27}/760
5) Figure 2‐5: Plot of a good fit curve for the dissociation pressure of uranium hydride, deuteride, and
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
33
At room temperature, palladium absorbs up to 900 times its own volume in hydrogen. It diffuses
easily through heated palladium; this is one means of purifying the gas. Finely divided Pd is a good
catalyst, and is used for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions.
Palladium powder is currently the second most‐used material for general‐purpose tritium storage
beds. Palladium can be obtained in powdered form and loaded directly into the container used for
the metal tritide bed. Palladium was used extensively at both Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL) and Sandia National Laboratories–Livermore (SNLL) in the tritium storage beds.
When the tritium is exposed to the powder, it dissolves in the palladium powder with a maximum
Pd:T ratio of approximately 0.7. Palladium powder is not pyrophoric, but it has a higher tritium
partial pressure than uranium at room temperature.
At room temperature, tritium, deuterium, and protium dissolve in the palladium powder and the
tritium partial pressure in the gas over the powder is approximately 50 torr. The overpressure
increases as a function of temperature. As the temperature of the palladium is increased by heating
the bed, the tritium partial pressure increases as a function of the temperature and reaches a
pressure of around 750 psia at 350°C. The general form of the equation for the dissociation
pressure, P, in millimeters of mercury (mm) for palladium hydride, deuteride, and tritide is:
݉݉ܲ ݈݃ ൌ ሺെܣ/ܶ ሻܤ
or
ܲ݉݉ ൌ 10 ሺെܣ/ܶ ሻܤ
where
ܶ ൌ ሻܭሺ ݁ݎݑݐܽݎ݁݉݁ݐ
The values for A and B for hydrogen and deuterium determined by different investigators are given
in Table 2‐3, and the equations developed by the different experimenters over the temperature
range they investigated are plotted in Figure 2‐6.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
34
Metal
Tritide Reference
Temperature
Range (oC)
Investigated A B
PdHx Gillespe & Hall
Gillespe & Hall
Ratchford & Castellan
Wicke & Nernst
0 to 180
200 to 300
unspecified
‐78 to 175
1835.4
1877.82
2028.2
2039
7.3278
7.483
7.9776
7.65
PdDx Gillespe & Downs
Wicke & Nernst
to 300
unspecified
1696.11
1940
7.5138
8.00
3) Table 2‐3: Dissociation pressure equation parameters for palladium hydride and deuteride
The 3He generated as a result of decay of the tritium absorbed in the palladium is trapped in the
palladium and is not released until the bed is heated or until the T:3He ratio reaches a particular
value. 3He generated as a result of decay in the overpressure gas is not absorbed in the palladium
Section 30
and remains in the overpressure gas. Most impurities do not react with, and are not gettered by,
the palladium powder. These impurities accumulate in the overpressure gas as the bed is used to
support operations.
The generation of significant pressure at low temperature (750 psia at 350°C) is the primary
advantage of palladium. The primary disadvantage of palladium is the high partial pressure of
tritium over the powder at room temperature (50 torr at room temperature).
6) Figure 2‐6: Dissociation pressure of palladium hydride and deuteride
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Temperature (°C)
D
is
s
o
c
ia
ti
o
n
P
re
ss
u
re
(
to
rr
)
log P mm =7.3278-1835.4/T
log P m =7.483-1877.82/T
log P mm =7.9776-2028.2/T
log P mm =7.65-2039/T
log P mm =7.5138-1696.11/T
log P mm =8-1940/T
log P mm =7.6-1900/T
log P mm =7.75-1810/T
Good Fit Line PdD
Good Fit Line PdH
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
35
2.5.2.b (3) Titanium
Titanium is a metallic element in Group 4 of the Periodic Table. The symbol is Ti, the atomic number
is 22, the atomic weight is 47.90, and the melting point is 1660°C. It is a low‐cost metal, and can
absorb and store tritium in a compact solid form at a tritium pressure of approximately 1E‐7 torr.
Titanium hydride, TiH2, in powder form, is a black metallic dust that is less prone to spontaneous
ignition in air than the parent metal. Finely divided titanium hydride is reported to ignite at 440°C
and its dust is an explosion hazard, which dissociates above 288°C. Titanium hydride is used in
powder metallurgy, hydrogen production, foamed metals, glass solder, and refractories, and as a gas
getter in the electronics industry. Titanium tritide in solid or massive form is stable in air for
extended periods of time. Titanium tritide is considered an insoluable STC and must be completely
contained. Titanium retains the decay helium up to a concentration of 0.3 He atom per Ti atom.
SRS3, Ontario Power Generation (formerly Ontario Hydro) 4 5 6 7 8, and Korea Hydro and Nuclear
Power Company Limited (KHNP) have selected titanium as their long‐term storage medium. The SRS
titanium beds have an expected useful life of about 10 years, while the Ontario Power Generation
and KHNP beds are expected to be in operation for over 20 years. The Canadians are not space‐
restricted, and therefore do not load their beds to the degree that SRS does. Additionally, longer
times to maximum helium retention ratio (0.3 He:Ti) can be achieved by diluting the tritium
concentration with deuterium or protium.
2.5.2.b (4) Zirconium
Zirconium is a metallic element of Group 4 in the Periodic Table. The symbol for zirconium is Zr, the
atomic number is 40, and the atomic weight is 91.22. Zirconium is flammable as a powder and melts
at 1850°C. Zirconium is a hard, lustrous, grayish metal that is strong and ductile, and is used in
alloys, pyrotechnics, welding fluxes, and explosives.
Zirconium hydride ZrH2 is a flammable gray‐black powder and is used in powder metallurgy, nuclear
moderators, and as a reducing agent. Finely divided zirconium hydride suspended in air will ignite at
430°C. Zirconium hydride contains about twice as many hydrogen atoms per unit of volume as
liquid hydrogen. Massive zirconium hydride is stable in air for extended periods of time at
Section 31
3 Heung, L.K., Titanium for Long Term Tritium Storage, WSRC‐TR‐94‐0596, December 1994.
4 Drolet, T.S., Wong, K.Y., and Dinner, P.J., Canadian Experience with Tritium – The Basis of a New Fusion
Project, Nuclear Technology/Fusion, Vol. 5, January 1984.
5 Kherani, N.P., and Shmayda, W.T., Bulk Getters for Tritium Storage, Ontario Hydro Research Division.
6 Shmayda, W.T. and Kherani, N.P., On the Unloading of Titanium Getter Beds, Ontario Hydro Research
Division, Report No. 85‐118‐K, October 2, 1985.
7 Kherani, N.P., and Shmayda, W.T., Titanium Sponge for Immobilization Tritium Containers, Ontario Hydro
Research Division, Report No. M85‐120‐K, December 19, 1985.
8 Noga, J.O., Investigations of Titanium and Zirconium Hydrides to Determine Suitability of Recoverable Tritium
Immobilization for the Pickering Tritium Removal System, Ontario Hydro Research Division, Report No. 81‐368‐
K, November 12, 1981.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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temperatures below 600°C. Additionally, SRNL has conducted research on the effect of over
pressurization of hydrogen on Zircaloy‐49. Note that zirconium tritide is considered an insoluble STC
and must be completely contained.
Certain DOE radioactive zirconium fines (which are destined for disposal) are managed as D001
mixed ignitable wastes. These radioactive zirconium fines are pyrophoric under 40 CFR 261.21(a)(2);
i.e., they are capable of causing fire through friction. If zirconium used for tritium storage beds is
destined for disposal (i.e., constitutes a waste), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
hazardous waste characteristic of ignitability must be analyzed, per 40.CFR.261.21. A broader
discussion of RCRA hazardous waste is contained in Section 3.1.3.
2.5.2.b (5) Societá Apparecchi Elettrici e Scientifici (SAES) Getters
During the late 1990s, investigations were conducted concerning the use of SAES getters to remove
tritium from tritium‐contaminated gaseous waste streams. These investigations have concentrated
on getters that cracked the gases containing tritium and removed the resulting free tritium from the
gas stream. The primary advantage of these getter systems is that tritium is not converted by the
tritium removal system to the more radiotoxic tritiated water. Additionally, the tritium can be
recovered in gaseous form from the getter, purified, and reused.
The materials tested include those manufactured in the form of pressed pellets that can be used in
low–pressure, drop‐packed bed reactors designed for the size required by the application flow rate
and lifetime requirements. The basic strategy implemented in prototype systems was to crack the
molecules on a hot getter and remove the nontritiated reactive impurities that interfere with the
performance of the hydrogen gettering alloys. Following purification, the gas is passed through a
hydrogen gettering bed to remove the hydrogen isotopes from the gas stream. This philosophy
worked well, and has gained acceptance for use in inerted gloveboxes.
9 Morgan, Jr., G.A. and Korinko, P.S. The Adsorption of Hydrogen on Low Pressure Hydride Materials
Conference Proceedings, Material Science and Technology 2011, October 16‐20, 2011.
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2.5.2.b (6) LaNi5‐Based Alloys
Section 32
The use of lanthanum‐nickel hydrides has been a continuing topic of interest; promising results for
hydrogen storage have been reported10. Promising results were also reported in the literature in
198811. Earlier research at Mound, however, in the 1970s and early 1980s indicated that
lanthanum‐nickel‐based alloys were not appropriate for tritium service due, in part, to
disproportionation. When cycled, the LaNi5 had a tendency to separate to form the parent metals
(La or Ni) or different alloys. The disproportionation tended to change the pressure, concentration,
and temperature properties of the metal/alloy mix and increase the quantity of tritium bound in the
heel that was not easily recoverable. However, research at Savannah River National Lab (SRNL) has
shown that “Substitution of aluminum for a portion of the nickel in LaNi5 was found to lower the
hydrogen plateau pressure and allow LaNiAI alloys to be tailored to specific storage applications.”
SRNL found that the substitution of aluminum in LaNi5 had the added benefit of stabilizing the alloy
against disproportionation. Decay of absorbed tritium to 3He does cause an “aging” effect, which
limits the useful life of LaNiAI alloy as a tritium storage material to less than about 10 years12.
Subsequently, SRNL determined that LaNiAl. 75 (LaNi4.25Al0.75) is a type F rather than a type S
dissolution, thereby allowing relaxation of radiological controls in use for this hydride13. See
Appendix E for further discussion of radiological controls associated with STCs.
2.5.2.c Absorbed Water
Molecular sieve material is used in tritium removal systems for removal of water contaminated with
tritium. Systems such as tritium removal systems, effluent recovery systems, and cleanup systems
remove tritium from a gas by oxidizing and/or cracking the tritium‐containing components. The free
tritium then combines with oxygen in the gas stream to form tritiated water. The gas stream is then
cooled to room temperature, and the water contained in the gas stream, including the tritiated
water, is removed by a molecular sieve trap.
A molecular sieve depending on type and size/mesh, can hold up to 25% water by weight., and the
sieve may be regenerated to remove the water so it can be reused. Tritiated water absorbed on
10 LaNi5 Intermetallic Hydride, extracted from State‐of‐the‐Art Review of Hydrogen Storage in Reversible Metal
Hydrides for Military Fuel Cell Applications, Gary Sandrock, Ph.D., for the Department of the Navy, Office of
Naval Research, N00014‐97‐M‐0001, July 24, 1997.
11 Hydrogen Isotope Sorption Properties of LaNi3Mn2 Alloy as a Candidate for the Tritium Storage Material, T.
Ide et al., Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. and H. Yoshida et al., Japan Atomic Research Institute, published in
Fusion Technology, September 1988.
12 Kirk Shanahan, et al., Tritium Aging Effects in LaNi4.25Al0.75, WSRC‐MS‐2002‐00564, Rev. 1, November 12,
2002.
13 Farfán, E.B, LaBone, T.R., Staack, G.C., Cheng, Y‐S., Zhou, Y., and Varallo, T.P. Determination of In Vitro Lung
Solubility and Intake‐to‐Dose Conversion Factor for Tritiated Lanthanum Nickel Aluminum Alloy. Health Physics,
103(3):249‐254; 2012.
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molecular sieve is not corrosive and may be stored in this way for long periods without damage to
the container wall.
Section 33
Water contaminated with HTO is also stored on clay. The common method of solidification of
tritium‐contaminated wastewater for disposal is to solidify the water on clay so that it can be
classified as solid waste. Clay will hold approximately 60 percent water by volume. Waste disposal
sites generally require the use of 100 percent more clay than required to solidify the water, and, as a
result, the water is generally limited to 30 percent of the volume of the clay for waste solidification
purposes. Water absorbed on clay is not corrosive and may be stored for long periods without
damage to the container wall.
2.5.3 Summary
2.5.3.a Best for Storage Conditions
The decision on storage media is a function of the storage length and frequency of unloadings.
Media range from gas (short timeframe, many movements) to titanium (long timeframe, few or no
movements) with other media (e.g., uranium) in between. Although the preferred form for storage
is a metal tritide and the least desirable form is a liquid, there are always exceptions to this rule.
Factors to be considered include:
Solid (Metal Tritides): Unless already in solid form, tritium is not readily available as a solid metal
tritide and requires conversion before storage. Metal tritides can store large quantities of tritium
without occupying large volumes, but the storage containers are more complex than gaseous
storage containers. Depending upon the metallic tritide chosen for storage, there are both
advantages and disadvantages. Titanium tritide is very stable, even when exposed to air, but it is
more difficult to recover tritium from the titanium than from other metals. Stored as uranium
tritide, the tritium can be easily and quickly recovered and provides for the removal of most
impurities that might accumulate during storage. However, uranium powder is also pyrophoric, and
starts releasing 3He after a few months.
Liquid (T2O): Tritium is not readily available in water form and requires conversion before storage.
Tritium is on the order of approximately 10,000 times more hazardous in oxide form than in
elemental form. It takes very little space, but is difficult to store due in part to the potential
corrosivity of the water. The tritiated liquid can be solidified on clay, molecular sieves, or polymers
prior to disposal. In either case, the final decision is a function of the quantity of tritium and the
tritium concentration of the water to be stored.
Gas (T2): Tritium is readily available in gaseous form. A great deal of experience exists on the design
of gaseous tritium storage systems. As a gas it takes up more volume than as a liquid or solid, but
can be more easily released to the environment if the tritium container is breached. Gas also
presents flammability vulnerability.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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2.5.3.b Best for Operations/Process
Solid (Metal Tritides): When used as a gas in research where tritium is issued and returned as a gas,
there are advantages to the use of hydride beds for storage. The heating/cooling cycle used to store
and recover tritium from the bed results in routine removal of the 3He and other impurities from the
tritium supply. It can be reused in other processes at reasonably high purity. Additionally, storage
as a metal tritide allows the bed to be used as a pressure generator and, in some cases, eliminates
the need for mechanical pumps.
Section 34
Liquid (T2O): Unless the process itself uses tritium in the form of water, there are no advantages to
storage of tritium in liquid form for operations.
Gas (T2): Tritium is primarily used in gaseous form, purified in gaseous form, assayed in gaseous
form, and is more useful in this form than any other form. As a result, storage in gaseous form for
operations is appropriate.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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2.5.3.c Best for Disposal Conditions
Disposing of tritium in the form of a liquid waste or gaseous waste is difficult. Generally speaking,
waste tritium is converted to solid form so that the material can be disposed of as a solid low‐level
(radioactive) waste, assuming there is no RCRA hazardous component.
Solid (Metal Tritide): It is possible to dispose of gaseous tritium by converting it to a solid metal
tritide. However, the disposal sites require that the metal tritide not be pyrophoric. If it is in
particulate form, the metal tritide must be contained to meet disposal site requirements.
Liquid (T2O): If the waste is in gaseous form, the tritium is normally removed from the gas mixture
and reused. If the concentration of tritium in the waste gas is too low to make recovery of the
tritium economically worthwhile, the waste gas is sent to an effluent processing system, where the
tritium is removed before the gases are released to the environment. Most current effluent
processing systems remove tritium from the waste gas by converting it to water. The water is then
solidified on molecular sieve, clay, mixtures of clay and cement, or Stergo® superabsorbent
(discussed in Section 8.1.4.b (2)), and is then packaged as solid waste and shipped to the disposal
site. Noted that tritium contaminated water on molecular sieve will develop increasing pressure
over time due to the radiolysis of the water by tritium decay. Depending on the initial pressure, the
water loading on the sieve and the tritium concentration in the water, the overpressure can exceed
1.5 atmosphers within months. LANL is developing a path forward concerning transportation and
disposal associated with this issue on molecular sieve.
Gas (T2): Waste disposal sites generally will not accept packages containing pressurized gases or
those in which a potential exists for generating 1.5 atmospheres (absolute) of pressure over time.
3.0 BASIC TRITIUM REGULATORY INFORMATION
Due to its more hazardous profile, most of the regulatory interest in tritium is concerned with the
oxide form. Figure 2‐3 pictorially illustrates various concentrations and regulatory setpoints. The
radiological materials inventory for tritium accounting purposes may not coincide with the
radiological materials inventory for documented safety analysis (DSA) purposes, which may not
coincide with the radiological materials inventory for Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
purposes. This is due to prescribed allowances for excluding various portions of the inventory, as
discussed in Sections 3.1 and 3.3. DOE regulations concerning tritium (along with other
radionuclides) can be found in 10 CFR Part 830, which contains associated Quality Assurance (QA)
Program requirements to be met.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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3.1 Tritium Accountability and Environmental Considerations
3.1.1 Radiological Materials Inventory
The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended (AEA) describes three categories of materials:
Section 35
byproduct, source, and special nuclear material (SNM). DOE O 474.2, Admin Chg. 3, Nuclear
Material Control and Accountability describe two categories of accountable nuclear material: SNM
and Other. Tritium is listed in Attachment 2, Table B in the Order, as an “other” category of
accountable nuclear material that must be controlled and accounted for financial and nuclear
materials management purposes and protected in a graded manner consistent with its strategic and
monetary importance. Since tritium is not listed in Table A of DOE O 474.2, Attachment 2, it is not
managed as SNM, and Table C, Graded Safeguards Table is not used to determine categorization and
attractiveness levels. The reportable quantity of tritium is one gram. The quantity of tritium in
accountable items must be reported to the hundredth of a gram (when at or above the reportable
quantity level) for NMMSS input. Personnel should always check the latest revision to the Order to
verify the current limits. Tritium contained in water (H2O or D2O) that is used as a moderator in a
nuclear reactor is not an accountable nuclear material..
Material management at DOE facilities is different than Nuclear Material Management. DOE O
410.2, Management of Nuclear Materials, provide requirements for managing nuclear materials.
Disposition of nuclear material can control how tritium can be released. If it falls below accountable
levels it can be treated as waste, otherwise it must be dispositioned according to DOE O 410.2T. The
Office of Nuclear Materials has issued an integration guidance document, Nuclear Material
Disposition Process Guidance, issued September 2013,14 for use in this topical area. See section
8.2.3 for further discussion.
Quantities of tritium contained in waste may be part of the facility accountable nuclear materials
inventory until it is removed from the facility to a waste accumulation area for storage or to a waste
packaging area for packaging.
DOE requires tritium facilities with more than a reportable quantity of tritium (1‐gram) establish
material control and accountability systems to provide accurate nuclear materials inventory
information, DOE Order 410.2. Transactions exceeding the reporting quantity for tritium (1‐gram)
must be reported to NMMSS, per DOE O 474.2. The facility tritium inventory and scrap levels of
tritium must be minimized consistent with the operational needs and safeguards practices of the
facility. A well‐designed facility materials control and accountability system includes, in part, the
following:
14 Nuclear Materials Guidance document phase 1 for implementing DOE Order 410.2, Nuclear Material
Management, Office of Nuclear Materials Integration, NNSA. September 2013.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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Accounting system database;
Account structure;
Records and reports;
Physical inventories
Periodic physical inventories;
Special inventories;
Inventory verification/confirmation measurements;
Measurements and measurement control;
Organization;
Selection and qualification of measurement methods;
Training and qualification of measurement personnel;
Measurement systems;
Measurement control;
Material transfers;
External transfers;
Internal transfers;
Material control indicators;
Shipper/receiver difference assessment;
Section 36
Inventory difference evaluation;
Evaluation of other inventory adjustments;
Documentation and reporting forms;
Procedures and requirements.
3.1.2 Limits for Tritium in Drinking Water and the Environment
The current National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) for beta‐ and photon‐emitting
radionuclides is 4 millirem (mrem) per year. The maximum contaminant level (MCL) for tritium in
drinking water systems, used to demonstrate compliance with the 4 mrem/year level regulatory
criterion as determined by the EPA (40 CFR Part 141) is 20,000 pCi/L (740 Bq/L). Assuming that one
drank 2 L per day, using the ICRP 30‐based Derived Concentration Guides (DCGs), a concentration of
80,000 pCi/ L (2,960 Bq/L) would produce a dose of 4 mrem per year. Other international standards
are based on 10 percent of the public dose limits as recommended by ICRP 60 and ICRP 103;
however, implementation varies by nation. Example drinking water values include: the World
Health Organization, based on ICRP 60 of 270,000 pCi/ L (10,000 Bq/L) and the Canada Nuclear
Safety Commission of 189,000 pCi/ L (7,000 Bq/L). The European Commission (EC) has a 2,700 pCi/L
(100 Bq/L) screening value for tritium to determine if more detailed evaluations are necessary and
to determine if tritium in combination with other radionuclides may exceed the 0.1 mSv/year (10
mrem/y) recommended dose criterion.
The EPA MCL of 20,000 pCi/L for tritium was promulgated in 1976 based on radiological risk
estimates from the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation I report (BEIR I), dose factors from
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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Handbook 69, Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Radionuclides in Air and Water for
Occupational Exposure, published by the National Bureau of Standards in 1959 and amended in
1963, and various assumptions regarding drinking water exposures. In 1991, as part of an effort to
update and revise the drinking water standards contained in 40 CFR Part 141, the EPA evaluated
potential doses from 20,000 pCi/L using Federal Guidance Report No. 11 dose factors based on ICRP
30, and determined that it would result in a 69,000 pCi/L limit; however, based on its policy for
implementing the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, the EPA left unmodified the
20,000 pCi/L limit, over DOE objections.
NRC requirements (not applicable to DOE facilities) for their licensees include compliance with NRC
public dose limits by calculating total effective dose equivalent to the individual likely to receive the
highest dose and demonstrate that it does not exceed public dose limits or demonstrate that annual
average concentration of effluents at the boundary of the unrestricted area does not exceed values
in 10 CFR Part 20, Appendix B, Table II. The values for liquid effluents are based on an assumed
ingestion of 2 L/day over the year and a dose constraint of 50 mrem/ year. DOE O 458.1, Radiation
Protection of the Public and the Environment, similarly requires DOE contractors to monitor releases
and calculate potential doses to members of the public to demonstrate that DOE activities are being
managed so that public dose is as far below the 100 mrem in a year primary dose limit as is practical.
DOE Technical Standard DOE‐STD‐1196‐2011, Derived Concentration Technical Standard, contains a
table of Derived Concentration Standards (DCSs) (which replaced DCGs), which are concentrations of
Section 37
radionuclides in water that would cause a 100 mrem in a year dose if an individual drinks 730 L (2 L/
day). The tritium DCS is 0.0019 µCi/ ml (approximately 2,000,000 pCi/ L); however, unlike NRC, DOE
does not permit the use of concentration guidelines as a means of compliance. Dose estimates are
necessary to demonstrate compliance and the DCSs are provided as a tool to assist in that
evaluation. Although it is expected that discharges would be significantly less than DCS values,
exceeding the DCS does not necessarily violate DOE O 458.1 if dose calculations demonstrate that
public doses, as a result of all pathways, are as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) below the
primary dose limit (this includes all sources and pathways, and a 25 mrem/yr constraint, which is
usually applied to single sources). DOE O 458.1 also requires that DOE facilities manage discharges
so as not to cause public drinking water systems downstream to exceed the drinking water
maximum contamination limits in 40 CFR Part 141, National Primary Drinking Water Regulations.
Neither DOE (DOE O 458.1) nor NRC (10 CFR Part 20, Subpart E) requirements for cleanup or
clearance of real property have specific concentrations or dose limits for tritium in groundwater.
Tritium must be considered along with all other radionuclides and pathways when demonstrating
that the dose to the public will be as far below 25 mrem/ year as is reasonably achievable, per DOE
O 458.1. However, DOE’s requirement that DOE activities not cause existing public drinking water
systems to otherwise exceed drinking water standards also applies to cleanup and clearance.
Although rarely a health concern, the detection of tritium in groundwater is of interest to many, and
is sometimes a contentious issue both within and outside the DOE complex. For example, the
identification of an onsite groundwater tritiated plume at Brookhaven National Laboratory
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contributed to the decision to close the High Flux Beam Reactor (the source of the tritium in the
plume), even though the plume did not present a significant public risk and the spent fuel pool had a
stainless steel liner installed to prevent future leakage. Environment, Safety and Health Safety
Advisory 2006‐04, Stakeholder Sensitivity to Tritium Releases15, describes issues encountered at
commercial nuclear power plants and non‐RCRA‐regulated landfills that have found tritium in their
leachate (e.g., the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection has identified tritium in
the leachate of most of its landfills). Both NRC and the Nuclear Energy Institute are sensitive to
tritium groundwater issues, as are the States. Effective monitoring programs and good outreach
and communication programs are key to preventing and mitigating actual and perceived problems
with tritium control. The accumulation and storage of tritiated water awaiting the disposition
decision at Fukushima highlights the public’s apprehension and interest with radioactivity in general
and even tritium specifically.
3.1.3 RCRA Applicability
Under the implementing regulations of RCRA, specifically at 40 CFR 261.4(a)(4), source, SNM, and
byproduct material, as defined by the AEA, is excluded from the definition of solid waste, and thus
from the RCRA hazardous waste management requirements. The AEA definition of byproduct
material includes “any radioactive material (except special nuclear material) yielded in or made
Section 38
radioactive by exposure to the radiation incident to the process of producing or utilizing special
nuclear material.” Tritium produced in a U.S. reactor meets the definition of byproduct material;
therefore, the waste streams derived from U.S. reactor‐produced tritium are excluded from RCRA
regulation (provided such waste streams do not also contain a RCRA hazardous waste component in
addition to the byproduct material component).
Accelerator‐produced tritium, on the other hand, did not qualify for this exclusion, since the tritium
is produced by a linear accelerator, and does not involve the production or utilization of SNM or the
extraction or concentration of source material. However, the AEA was amended by the Energy
Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005), which amended the definition of byproduct material to include
“any material that has been made radioactive by use of a particle accelerator, and is produced,
extracted, or converted after extraction, before, on or after the date of enactment of [EPACT 2005]
for use for a commercial, medical, or research activity.” Therefore, accelerator‐produced tritium
used for weapons production does not qualify for the RCRA material exclusion, while other uses for
the accelerator‐produced tritium do meet the RCRA exclusion. Additionally, tritium produced in the
original Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) design, employing natural uranium as fuel, may not,
meet the definition of byproduct material; therefore, it is prudent to assume that it also does not
qualify for RCRA exclusion.
15 DOE/EH‐0699, DOE Environment, Safety and Health Advisory 2006‐4, Stakeholder Sensitivity to Tritium
Releases, July 2006.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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Thus, for U.S. reactor‐generated or accelerator non‐weapons production tritium waste to be
considered hazardous waste, the waste stream also would have to contain a RCRA‐listed or non‐
tritium‐derived characteristic hazardous waste component. The waste stream from CANDUs and
weapons‐related accelerator tritium would not automatically be excluded from RCRA; however,
unless such tritium wastes exhibit one of the characteristics of RCRA hazardous waste (ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity [40 CFR Part 261, Sections 21 through 261.24]) or contain a RCRA‐
listed hazardous waste, the waste streams would not need to be managed as RCRA hazardous or
mixed waste. Pursuant to the RCRA regulations, it is the responsibility of the waste generator to
determine if that waste is subject to the hazardous waste requirements [40 CFR 262.11]. Categories
of characteristic hazardous waste (and associated properties) that appear to have some potential to
apply to certain accelerator‐produced tritium wastes are as follows:
Ignitability [40 CFR 261.21] – Ignitable wastes are solid wastes that exhibit any of the following
properties: liquids with a flashpoint of less than 60°C (140°F); solids that are capable of causing
fires through friction, absorption of moisture, or spontaneous chemical changes; ignitable
compressed gases, as defined in 49 CFR 173.300; or oxidizers, as defined in 49 CFR 173.151.
Corrosivity [40 CFR 261.22] – Corrosive wastes are solid wastes that exhibit any of the following
properties: an aqueous material with pH <2 or >12.5; or a liquid that corrodes steel at a rate
greater than ¼ inch per year at a temperature of 55°C (130°F).
Section 39
Reactivity [40 CFR 261.23] – Reactive wastes are solid wastes that exhibit any of the following
properties: (1) they are normally unstable and readily undergo violent change without
detonating; (2) they react violently with water; (3) they form potentially explosive mixtures with
water; (4) when mixed with water, they generate toxic gases, vapors, or fumes in a quantity
sufficient to present a danger to human health or the environment; (5) they are a cyanide‐ or
sulfide‐bearing waste which, when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and 12.5, can generate
toxic gases, vapors, or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present a danger to human health or the
environment; (6) they are capable of detonation or explosive reaction if subjected to a strong
initiating source or if heated under confinement; (7) they are readily capable of detonation or
explosive decomposition or reaction at standard temperature and pressure; (8) they are a
forbidden explosive, as defined in 49 CFR 173.54, a Class A explosive, as defined in 49 CFR
173.53, or a Class B explosive, as defined in 49 CFR 173.88.
The discussion in Section 2.5.1.c provides only a qualitative argument for the determination that for
tritiated waste, the characteristics of corrosivity typically are not generally exhibited as little data
exists in this area. Moreover, little data are currently available to confirm whether or not the vapor
space of some tritium containers (e.g., tritium oxide adsorbed on molecular sieves) would exhibit
the hazardous characteristic of ignitability or reactivity over time due to radiolytic decay. As
explained above, reactor‐generated or accelerator non‐weapons‐production tritium waste streams
that do not contain a hazardous waste component may be excluded from the RCRA hazardous waste
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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regulations pursuant to 40 CFR 261.4(a)(4). This may be the case even if sufficient quantities of both
hydrogen and oxygen are present to exhibit characteristics of ignitability or reactivity. This is based
on a regulatory policy that EPA has applied in certain cases whereby residuals derived from the
management of exempt or excluded waste retain the exemption or exclusion.16 17 18 19 20. However,
as indicated above, if a tritium waste (irrespective of its source) also contains a distinct hazardous
waste component, the waste stream should be managed as a radioactive mixed waste under the
AEA and RCRA.
The application of RCRA to certain tritium waste streams may be subject to regulatory interpretation
and enforcement discretion. With this in mind, it is recommended that determinations as to
whether or not certain tritium wastes constitute RCRA hazardous waste be discussed and validated
with the appropriate regulatory agency (e.g., the EPA Region or RCRA‐authorized State agency).
Section 8.2.2 provides a flow diagram and expanded discussion on this issue in addition to the
definitions and options for tritium recovery and disposal.
The RCRA characteristics are vital for purposes of disposal, but DOT has specific and (often) distinct
defining criteria for the purposes of transportation. See 49 CFR Part 173, Subpart D, Definitions,
Classification, Packing Group Assignments and Exceptions for Hazardous Materials Other Than Class
1 and Class 7.
3.1.4 CERCLA Applicability
Under the CERCLA, cleanups are required to attain applicable or relevant and appropriate (ARAR)
Section 40
standards. With respect to contaminated aquifers, CERCLA designates MCLs (20,000 for tritium)
established under the SDWA as the “relevant and appropriate” standard for the restoration of
contaminated ground waters that serve as a current or potential future drinking water source.
However, in situations where multiple contaminants are present and have the potential for additive
effects, the cleanup goal may be set lower than the MCL. In general, discharges to surface water
bodies require compliance with AWQC, although if the surface water body be used as a drinking
water source, the MCL may be applied to such discharges. If RCRA hazardous listed or characteristic
wastes be present, project managers will need to determine which RCRA requirements will apply as
discussed in section 3.1.3.
3.2 Tritium Safeguards and Security
16 Preamble of the First Third Land Disposal Restrictions Final Rule, 53 FR 31149, August 17, 1988.
17 Memorandum, Environmental Protection Agency, Marcia E. Williams and Christina Kaneen to Robert L.
Duprey, Applicability of Bevill Amendment to the American Natural Gas Coal Gasification Facility, September
1987.
18 Letter, Marcia E. Williams, EPA, to G. N. Weinreich, ANG Coal Gasification Co., June 16, 1986.
19 Memorandum, Environmental Protection Agency, John H. Skinner to Harry Seraydarian, Clarification of
Mining Waste Exclusion, May 16, 1985.
20 RCRA Superfund Hotline Report, February 1985.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
47
Tritium is a nuclear material of strategic importance and must be safeguarded from theft or
diversion. The current DOE safeguards and security directives do not explicitly grade or categorize
tritium as predecessor directives had.
3.3 Tritium Facility Safety Analysis and Regulatory Quantity Limits
A documented safety analysis is required by 10 CFR Part 830, Nuclear Safety Management, for all
Hazard Category 1, 2, and 3 nuclear facilities. Irrespective of these requirements, the good practices
associated with the implementation of Integrated Safety Management (ISM) principles necessitate
that hazards be identified and controlled, which is a major step in the safety analysis process.
3.3.1 Safety Analysis
Safety analyses address various accident scenarios. Some typical examples of accident categories
include fire, explosion, tritium leaks, cooling water breaks, and failure of detritiation system
components.
3.3.1.a Facility Requirements
There are a few fundamental assumptions normally made when performing safety analyses on
tritium facilities, which, if not satisfied, require more detailed analyses or development of corrective
actions. These include:
The integrity of the primary container should be ensured for all normal operations, anticipated
operational occurrences, and for the design basis accidents (DBAs) it is required to withstand.
If the facility structure is not part of the secondary barrier, its failure as a result of severe
natural phenomena or other postulated DBAs should not prevent the primary container or the
secondary containment or confinement system from performing their necessary safety
functions.
When secondary containers (secondaries) are used, a tritium effluent removal system to handle
tritium leakage from primary containers is recommended by this Standard, but not required. .
3.3.1.b Radiological Materials Inventory
Section 41
Attachment 1 to DOE‐STD‐1027‐92, Change Notice 1, Hazard Categorization and Accident Analysis
Techniques for Compliance with DOE Order 5480.23, Nuclear Safety Analysis Reports, states,
Additionally, material contained in [Department of Transportation (DOT)] Type B shipping
containers (with or without overpack) may be excluded from summation of a facility’s
radioactive inventory if the Certificates of Compliance are kept current and the materials stored
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
48
are authorized by the Certificate. However, Type B containers [see Section 6.1] without an
overpack should have heat protection provided by the facility’s fire suppression system. Further
discussion expands this clarification as follows:
The Material at Risk (MAR) is the bounding quantity of hazardous material that is available to be
acted on by a postulated accident. MAR values used in hazard and accident analysis shall be
consistent with the values noted in hazard identification/evaluation, and shall be bounding with
respect to each accident being evaluated. While DOE‐STD‐1027‐92 excludes material in Department
of Transportation Type B qualified containers from consideration for the purposes of hazard
classification, the existence of such material shall be acknowledged in the DSA and excluded from
the source term for a particular event scenario only if the containers can be shown to perform their
safety functions under the accident conditions. If the containers are not currently qualified
(qualifications expire on a fixed schedule), then their contents must be included in the summation of
facility inventory and be included in accident analyses, irrespective of accident conditions. If,
however, the container is currently certified, then a comparison of the conditions resulting from
transportation and facility accidents is performed. For example, consider a currently certified Type
B container that has been qualified to withstand fire and crush loads (i.e., Type B Hypothetical
Accident Crush Test loads) associated with a transportation accident. If these transportation
accident conditions are more severe than the associated credible facility accident conditions (e.g.,
fire and seismic crush loads), than the inventory in these containers can be excluded from source
terms for those associated accident scenarios (irrespective of fire suppression system coverage). If
the facility fire conditions exceed the transportation fire conditions, the inventory is included. Note
that credit for safety‐class or safety‐significant fire suppression affects the selection of the credible
facility fire scenario, and therefore, the fire conditions for comparison with the transportation fire
conditions.
If the transportation accident conditions are less severe than the facility accident conditions, then
the contents are included in the accident scenarios. For example, if the seismic crush loads exceed
the transportation crush loads, the contents cannot be excluded from the facility seismic accident
scenarios. They could, however, still be excluded from the facility fire scenarios if the transportation
fire conditions bound the facility fire conditions.
DOE‐STD‐1027‐92, Change Notice 1 does not provide explicit exemption criteria for other than Type
B containers. General guidance for other than Type B containers would be to include the tritium in
Section 42
the facility inventory. Specific guidance concerning the degree and amount of residual tritium
inventory to include in safety analyses based on facility‐specific configurations, can be obtained
from AU.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
49
The Hazard Category of a nuclear facility is based on threshold quantities of radiological material
inventory. Gram quantities are rounded values based on the calculated number of curies. 21 The
definitions for each Hazard Category are as follows:
Hazard Category I (generally limited to nuclear reactors): Regardless of the quantity of tritium in
the inventory, a facility that handles only tritium is not classified, by tritium quantity alone, as a
Hazard Category I. The Program Secretarial Officer (PSO) may designate a tritium facility as
Category I if the potential for significant offsite consequences exists.
Hazard Category II: To be classified as a Category II nuclear facility, the facility tritium inventory
must be > 30 grams.
Hazard Category III: To be classified as a Category III nuclear facility, the facility tritium
inventory must be > 1.6 and < 30 grams.
Less than Hazard Category III: (formally called Radiological) Facilities that have less than 1.6
grams of tritium in the facility radiological material inventory.). [10 CFR Part 830]
Some DOE sites have adopted a lower threshold limit for less than Haz Cat III Nuclear Facilities at
the RQ level for the associated radionuclide, under which the facility would be considered non‐
radiological. This approach has also been endorsed in the past by various DOE Program Offices
at HQ.22 Using this approach for tritium facilities for which the RQ value is 100 Ci, any facility
possessing less than this would be considered non‐nuclear or non‐radiological. This approach,
however, is contrary to the legal definition as stated in the Atomic Energy Act and DOE Standard
1027 in which there is no lower threshold identified to become a non‐radiological facility for a
facility that contains radiological inventory and users are cautioned not to treat tritium facilities
with less than 100 Ci as non‐nuclear. Unlike the existence of processes for downgrading Haz Cat
II and III Nuclear Facilities there are none for a Haz Cat III Nuclear Facility to non‐nuclear.
3.3.1.c Material Release Assumptions
Once the total inventory available for release is known, the appropriate source term can be
calculated. The components of the source term, as described in DOE‐HDBK‐3010‐94, Airborne
Release Fraction/Rates and Respirable Fractions for Nonreactor Nuclear Facilities, are material at
risk, damage ratio, airborne release fraction, respirable fraction, and leak path factor. The factors
for airborne release and respirable fractions are normally assumed to be 1.0 for elemental tritium
and oxide. The other factors are facility‐specific. For DSA fire scenarios, the fraction of the release
21 DOE‐STD‐1027‐92, Change Notice 1, Hazard Categorization and Accident Analysis Techniques for Compliance
with DOE Order 5480.23, Nuclear Safety Analysis Reports, September 1997.
22 Implementation Guidance for Authorization Basis, DOE Office of Defense Programs, Revision 1, August 21,
1995.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
50
assumed to be oxide is normally 100 percent. Typical scenarios to review for inclusion in safety
Section 43
analyses are area fires (single and multiple Fire Control Areas (FCAs)), full facility fire, leaks or spills,
hydrogen explosions, and Natural Phenomena Hazards (NPH) events (the design basis earthquake
(DBE) may have a seismic‐induced fire, which usually results in the bounding accident). DOE‐STD‐
3009‐94, Change Notice 3, Preparation Guide for U.S. DOE Nonreactor Nuclear Facility Safety
Analysis, provides detailed guidance for performing accident analyses.
Several dose methodologies have been used for safety analyses throughout the DOE complex.
However, with the implementation of DOE G 414.1‐4, Safety Software Guide for Use with 10 CFR
Part 830, Subpart A, Quality Assurance Requirements, and DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance, some
computer modeling methodologies are designated as toolbox codes for safety analysis, while others
are not. Safety analysts should check the current DOE Safety Software Control Registry before using
a specific program for safety analysis calculations.
The value associated with dry deposition velocity for tritium oxide used in safety basis calculations
has been the subject of Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board (DNFSB) and SRS discussions since
2011. The DNFSB, in the Staff Issue Report of March 17, 201123, indicated that use of the value of
0.5 cm/s was non‐conservative. Analyses by SRNL24 to address this and other safety basis
calculations concluded that 1) the Pasquill stability classification for regulatory application of SRS is
based on measurements of the standard deviation of the vertical component of wind direction
fluctuations, collected from the 61m level of the SRS meteorological towers and processed in full
accordance with EPA‐454/R‐99‐005, Meteorological Monitoring Guidance for Regulatory Modeling
Applications25; and that 2) meteorological databases used as input for MACCS2 calculations should
contain hourly data for five consecutive annual periods from the most recently available 10 years.
Although it is likely that the realistic deposition velocity is approximately in the range of 0.1 cm/s,
there is not currently data to support this supposition. Current toolbox codes do not model re‐
emission and as such SRS research into re‐emission has been proposed. The results of this research
may allow credit for a portion of the re‐emission to the canopy as oppose to assuming 100% re‐
emission to the atmosphere, which will affect the value chosen for deposition velocity. Several
models have been proposed for washout, which is difficult to model; however research is continuing
in this area. A paper presented at the 10th International Conference on Tritium Science and
23 August 19, 2011, letter from P. Winokur, DNFSB, to T. D’Agostino, NNSA Administrator, transmitted the
March 17, 2011, Staff Issue Report Review of Safety Basis, Tritium Facilities, Savannah River Site.
24 C.H. Hunter. SRNL‐STI‐2012‐00055, A Recommended Pasquill‐Gifford Stability Classification Method for
Safety Basis Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling at SRS. Rev. 0, March 2012.
25 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA‐454/R‐99‐005, Meteorological Monitoring Guidance for
Regulatory Modeling Applications, February 2000.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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Technology (TRITIUM 2013) examined the relationship between exchange rate and washout
coefficient26.
Section 44
The values for parameters (e.g., relative concentration, deposition velocity) selected for use in dose
consequence analyses would ideally be site‐specific. In the absence of the data to quantify re‐
emission 0.00 cm/sec should be the default value to be used for deposition velocity.
Another program used primarily for modeling prior to environmental release, the Tritium Migration
Analysis Program (TMAP) 27 was developed by EG&G Idaho, Inc., to dynamically analyze tritium
transport in fusion reactor facilities. TMAP solves conservation equations for any number of
gaseous species in a system composed of solid structures or walls, and related gas filled enclosures
by including the phenomena of surface molecular dissociation and atomic recombination, bulk
diffusion with the possibility of trapping by material defects produced by neutron damage, chemical
reactions within enclosures, and convective flow between enclosures. In TMAP, the movement of
hydrogen species across structure surfaces is not only governed by molecular surface kinetics but by
solution laws, such as Sieverts’ or Henry’s laws, or inhibited from crossing the surface. Movement in
solids (may be a layered composites) is modeled by one‐dimensional Fick’s law of diffusion
equations. The thermal response of these structures is obtained from the solution of one
dimensional heat conduction equations that account for applied heat or boundary temperature
loadings conditions. The code was specifically developed to predict the inventories of tritium in and
release from fusion reactor systems that experience both plasma driven permeation at very high
implanted fluxes (1024 ions/m2‐s) and pressure driven permeation at very low tritium pressures (< 10
Pa). However, it is evident that TMAP has application to a much wider variety of problems, including
modeling experiment facilities developed to measure tritium material transport properties.
TMAP4 can be obtained from the Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Energy Science and Technology
Software Center (ESTSC).
Several Federal environmental laws (e.g., Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA), and the Clean Water Act (CWA)) require that releases of hazardous
substances above reportable quantities (for tritium, this is 100 curies in 24 hours) be reported to the
National Response Center. In many cases, the curie levels are back‐calculated from offsite dose
receptor requirements. DOE O 231.1A, DOE M 231.1‐2, DOE O 151.1C, and DOE G 151.1‐4 make
distinctions between “normal” or “routine” releases and “abnormal” or “accidental” releases, and
suggest reporting abnormal or accidental releases, even if they are below Federally permitted levels.
26 A.V. Golubev et al. The Field Experiments on the HTO Washout from the Atmosphere. Presented at the 10th
International Conference on Tritium Science and Technology (TRITIUM 2013), Nice, France.
27 G. R. Longhurst, D. F. Holland, J. L. Jones, B. J. Merrill, TMAP4 User’s Manual, EGG‐FSP‐10315, Idaho National
Engineering Laboratory, July 1992
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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3.3.2 Integrated Safety Management
All tritium‐related operations and activities, including design, construction, system acceptance and
turnover, operations, shutdown, deactivation, should follow commitments identified in DOE ISM
Section 45
directives of the 450.4 series, which were an outgrowth from the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety
Board (DNFSB) Recommendation 95‐2 Implementation Plan. The objective of ISMS, as articulated in
48 CFR § 970.5223‐1, Integration of Environment, Safety, and Health into Work Planning and
Execution, is that, in performing work for DOE, the Contractor shall perform work safely, in a
manner that ensures adequate protection for employees, the public, and the environment, and shall
be accountable for the safe performance of work. The Contractor shall exercise a degree of care
commensurate with the work and the associated hazards. The Contractor shall ensure that
management of environment, safety and health (ES&H) functions and activities becomes an integral
but visible part of the Contractor’s work planning and execution processes.
This clause goes on to address ISMS in more detail. The commitments for ISM follow the seven
Guiding Principles:
1. Line Management Responsibility for Safety;
2. Clearly Defined Roles and Responsibilities;
3. Personnel Competence Commensurate with Responsibilities;
4. Balanced Priorities;
5. Identification of Safety Standards and Requirements;
6. Hazard Controls Tailored to the Work Being Performed;
7. Operations Authorization.
The process for planning and conducting pre‐work hazards analysis for all work operations at tritium
facilities should be consistent with the Guiding Principles listed above and should follow a structured
approach commensurate with the risks and hazards involved. Several methods for enhanced work
planning and related work planning strategies used throughout the DOE complex follow five steps:
1) Define the Scope of Work;
2) Analyze the Hazards;
3) Develop and Implement Hazard Controls;
4) Perform Work within Controls; and
5) Provide Feedback and Continuous Improvement.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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This sequence is one of many ways to ensure a structured approach in work planning with a focus
on worker safety and reduced environmental risks.
3.3.3 Facility Segmentation
Facility segmentation is discussed in DOE‐STD‐1027‐92. Activities conducted in the same facility may
be separated into different areas for analysis purposes, but only if independence (in accident space)
can be shown. Potential areas for segmentation include:
Receiving area;
Receiving storage area;
Shipping area;
Shipping storage area;
Tritium unpackaging, handling, and packaging operations;
Low‐level waste accumulation area;
Low‐level waste packaging area; and
Packaged low‐level waste storage area.
The independence of the segments, however, is not easily demonstrated. Common piping and
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) cannot exist to use this segmentation process.
Additionally, common‐cause initiating events (e.g., fire, seismic) affect multiple segments, thereby
placing an additional burden of proof on the analyst to demonstrate independence. A successful
segmentation analysis, however, would not affect the applicability of Price‐Anderson enforcement
of the Nuclear Safety Rules to the facility.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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3.4 Radiological Material Quantity Limits
3.4.1 Tritium Shipping, Radioactive Material Inventory, Quantity Limits
Once an item has met the DOE and DOT requirements for shipment (e.g., properly packaged,
Section 46
radioactively surveyed, properly marked, properly completed shipping papers), the item inside the
approved shipping package can be shipped to a new location.
During shipment, the item inside the approved shipping package is expected to be subject to the
normal activities associated with its movement from one location to another; for example, loading
and unloading the package from vehicles, transport to a shipping area, storage in the shipping area
prior to transport, loading and unloading the package onto trucks/trains/airplanes, and storage in
the receiving area after arrival at the new destination.
The packaging required by DOT regulations is designed to protect the workers, the public, and the
environment from the radioactive material during normal package handling, transport, and
shipping/receiving storage.
The applicable requirements for various quantities of tritium for transportation and storage are
roughly as follows:
Limited Quantity (< 21.6 Ci for gas; see Table 7‐1 for solids, liquids, and applicable 49 CFR
Part 173 requirements): Limited quantities of tritium can be packaged and shipped in strong,
tight containers (paper boxes, paint cans) with proper markings.
Type A Quantity (21.6 to < 1080 Ci): Type A quantities of tritium use DOT Specification 7A
containers, properly marked and surveyed prior to shipment. A number of different packages
are available from small cans, 55‐ and 85‐gallon drums, 4 x 4 x 7‐foot steel boxes, up to and
including oversized, specially designed containers. These containers are relatively inexpensive.
Type B Quantity (> 1080 Ci): Type B quantities of tritium must be shipped in a certified Type B
package. There is only a limited number of these Type B packages available for tritium shipment
(e.g., BTSP, UC‐609), and special routing (i.e., prescribed routes employing highway route
control such as using major highways or bypassing cities) is required.
Type B‐Quantity, Low‐Level Radioactive Waste: For the purposes of storage at the waste site,
Type B‐quantity solid waste can be stored in Type A containers.
At the waste generation location, items containing greater than 1080 Ci of tritium are normally
stored in Type A containers. Type A containers containing over 1080 Ci must then be placed into
Type B containers for shipping to DOE waste sites. At the DOE waste site, the Type A containers can
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
55
be removed from the Type B package and stored in the Type A package. This allows the expensive
Type B package to be returned to the shipper and reused for another Type B shipment. A
radiological materials inventory must still meet the requirements as discussed in Section 3.3.1.b.
Additionally, 10 CFR Part 835 contains labeling requirements.
3.4.2 Tritium Receiving Area, Shipping Area, Quantity Limits
There are no limits (other than local administrative limits) on the inventory of approved containers
that can be stored in a properly marked shipping area, receiving area, shipping storage area, and
receiving storage area. There are, however, site‐wide limits that may be imposed in the EIS that
could restrict the total inventory quantities.
These areas must be inside an area posted as a Controlled Area, per 10 CFR Part 835. The
Controlled Area encloses an area posted as a Radioactive Materials Area (RMA). The Controlled
Section 47
Area and the RMA can be the same area. The RMA must be periodically surveyed and appropriately
marked to indicate the nuclear hazard associated with the area. These areas may have more than
one incoming or outgoing certified package containing Type A or B packages waiting for transport.
3.5 Tritium Unpackaging, Handling, and Packaging Areas, Quantity Limits
The tritium is removed from the specification package/certified package in unpackaging, handling,
and packaging areas, and, as such, these areas if not emcompassed by the nuclear facility will be
designated as a nuclear facility (Hazard Cat 2, 3 or less than 3), depending upon the quantity of
tritium in the inventory.
3.6 Tritium Waste Collection and Waste Packaging Area, Quantity Limits
The waste collection/packaging area will have, in process, the collection and packaging of low‐level
waste. The waste collection/packaging area should likewise be reviewed for designation as a
nuclear facility as defined by the quantity of tritium.
3.7 Tritium Radworker Training
Subpart J of 10 CFR Part 835, Occupational Radiation Protection, requires that individuals complete
radiation safety training commensurate with the hazards in the area and the required controls.
DOE‐STD‐1098‐2008, Radiological Control lists Appendix F of this Standard, “Radiological Training for
Tritium Facilities,” as a reference to be considered in addition to DOE’s core training material for
radiological workers at tritium facilities. This Appendix provides a recommended implementation
process for conducting the radiation safety training at tritium facilities as required by 10 CFR Part
835 and as recommended in DOE‐STD‐1098‐2008.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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3.8 Tritium Focus Group (TFG)
The TFG comprises both DOE Federal and contractor personnel associated with tritium operations.
It was formed in 1991, in response to the Secretary of Energy’s Task Group on tritium operations,
and has expanded in scope and stature since that time. Its charter is contained in Appendix H.
4.0 FACILITY DESIGN
DOE tritium facilities, as a subset of DOE nonreactor nuclear facilities, must conform to the design
requirements contained in DOE O 420.1C, Facility Safety. Implementation guidance for this Order
can be found in DOE G 420.1‐1A. The general design philosophy of nuclear facilities in general, and
tritium facilities specifically, follows the tenets of multiple levels of protection; preventive vs.
mitigative design features, passive vs. active safety systems, engineered vs. administrative controls,
and judicious use of zoning throughout the facility.
4.1 Confinement of Tritium Philosophy
It is desirable to have tritium construction projects managed by a team that includes tritium
operations expertise on staff. The building/systems would be designed to meet the needs of the
user, and costly retrofits after completion could be avoided.
During the first 25 years of tritium technology, the handling techniques in use were designed to
protect the worker from exposure to tritium. Worker protection was provided primarily by the use
of single‐pass ventilation systems designed to rapidly remove any tritium released in the breathing
space from the area occupied by the workers. The ventilation gases were released through an
elevated stack at high velocity to massively dilute the gases before they could reach ground level.
Section 48
Single‐pass ventilation systems and high‐velocity hoods were used extensively and quite successfully
for worker protection during these early years. These high‐velocity ventilation, high‐velocity air
hood, and elevated release techniques are still used for worker protection, but generally as a
supplement to improved barriers that better protect the environment.
In those early years, the room or building enclosing the tritium activity was equipped with a single‐
pass ventilation system that did not recirculate the air back into the facility. Outside air was brought
in by the ventilation fans, conditioned for comfort, passed through the building spaces one time,
and was then released to the environment through an elevated stack. The room air exchange rate
generally accepted to be adequate for worker protection was 6 to 10 room air changes per hour.
The tritium apparatus was enclosed in a high‐velocity air hood, and the worker worked through
gloves in the doors or reached in through hood openings to operate the equipment. The high‐
velocity air hoods were maintained at a pressure negative to the room spaces, and the natural air
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
57
flow was from the room through the hood opening and then out the ventilation duct work and up
the stack to the environment.
Tritium releases that occurred due to normal operations, component failure, and worker error were
inside the hood. The high‐velocity air flowing through the hood swept any released tritium away
from the worker and out the stack to the environment where the tritium was massively diluted in
concentration. These techniques protected the worker; however, tritium was released to the
environment.
As concern for the environment increased, tritium technologists first attempted to control releases
by increasing design and material selection requirements, adding and enforcing regulations, and
increasing worker training and awareness. Time would prove that these techniques, although
helpful, were not completely successful. The tritium workers were already operating at a high
performance level and the tritium releases associated with equipment design and material selection
were not measurably decreasing as a result of the more stringent design requirements and reviews.
Tritium releases continued to occur. The expectation of faultless materials and errorless workers
was unrealistic. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, another philosophy, one of capture,
containment, and cleanup evolved.
4.1.1 Tritium Capture, Contain, and Cleanup Process
The capture, contain, and cleanup process encloses the primary or first wall tritium container inside
a secondary container such as a double‐walled container, glovebox, room, or building so that any
tritium escaping from the primary container is captured in the secondary container. A tritium
removal system associated with the secondary container then removes the tritium from the
secondary by circulating the captured gases through a cleanup system.
4.1.1.a Containment and Confinement Systems
There are many different technical descriptions of the terms containment and confinement. The
simple dictionary definitions are: containment – being contained, which in turn is to hold or
enclose; and confinement – being confined, which in turn is to restrict, to keep within limits. It is
beneficial to define how these words are used in the tritium field. In some facilities and
Section 49
applications, the terms are used interchangeably. The TFG definitions are defined in Appendix B,
Definitions. This Standard as noted in the Definitions makes a distinction between these terms as
follows:
Containment system: A collection of passive barriers that can satisfy a specified leak criterion
without operation of any ancillary equipment. An example of a containment system is a series of
piping and vessels enclosing tritium gas operations. An example of a simple double containment
system is a container within another container with each container acting as a separate and
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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independent containment system; more intricate double containment systems have the capability
to monitor the volume between the containers for leak detection of the inner container.
Confinement system: A collection of barriers that can satisfy a specified leak criterion contingent
upon operation of its ancillary (active) system. Examples of confinement systems include: a
glovebox and its associated cleanup system, and a room with its associated cleanup system.
Simply stated, containment consists of some arrangement of physical barriers that do not need any
other equipment or operator action to operate to meet a leak rate criterion, whereas confinement
consists of an arrangement of barriers (any kind) that need an active system or action to meet its
leak rate criterion. Note that in the context of these definitions, a glovebox with an associated
glovebox cleanup system is a confinement system. A glovebox structure itself is a containment
system if, and only if, the specified leak criterion can be met by the structure itself.
As mentioned, the terms containment and confinement are not well defined in the DOE complex.
For example, DOE M 435.1‐1 defines confinement as follows:
Confinement: The control or retention of radioactive materials within a designated
boundary. Primary confinements are process enclosures and other spaces normally
containing radioactive material. Secondary confinement surrounds one or more primary
confinement systems.
Adding to the confusion are requirements for ventilation systems. DOE G 420.1‐1A for use with DOE
O 420.1C does not define containment or confinement, but defines the terms primary, secondary,
and tertiary “confinement barriers” as:
• Primary confinement. Provides confinement of hazardous material to the vicinity of its
processing. This confinement is typically provided by piping, tanks, gloveboxes,
encapsulating material, and the like, along with any off‐gas systems that control effluent
from within the primary confinement.
• Secondary confinement. Consists of a cell or enclosure surrounding the process
material or equipment along with any associated ventilation exhaust systems from the
enclosed area.
• Tertiary confinement. Typically provided by walls, floor, roof, and associated ventilation
exhaust systems of the facility. It provides a final barrier against the release of
hazardous materials into the environment.
The Guide also references DNFSB/TECH 34, Confinement of Radioactive Materials at Defense
Nuclear Facilities, in which the terms “active confinement” systems and “passive confinement”
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
59
systems are discussed. The terms “active confinement” and “passive confinement” roughly
translate to confinement and containment, respectively, as used in this Standard.
Section 50
4.1.1.a(1) Primary Containers
Operations are conducted with tritium enclosed inside leak tight primary containers consisting of
parts such as valves, tubing, pipe, components, transducers, pumps, and vessels. The leak rate of
these primary or first wall containers, at operating pressure, is generally certified to be less than 10‐6
to 10‐7 cm3 of helium per second (cm3 He/sec). The quantity of tritium released during all normal
operations is extremely small and can be estimated from the engineering specifications. Many
primary tritium systems are designed with pressure relief protection. These devices should not
relieve directly into the environment, but rather into holding tanks designed with sufficient capacity
to retain the entire contents of the primary system.
4.1.1.a(2) Secondary Containers
In modern tritium operations, the primary container is enclosed inside a secondary barrier such as a
glovebox. The secondary system is only exposed to tritium, if it is released from the primary barrier.
Secondary containers in the DOE complex vary in size, shape, leak rate, and quality depending upon
the age, projected use, and the quantity of tritium at risk. Figure 4‐1 illustrates an example of
secondary containment.
7) Figure 4‐1: Secondary containment enclosing a primary container filled with tritium inside a
building equipped with single‐pass ventilation to a stack
Room inside building
Building
Stack
Tritium
release
occurs
through
the
stack
Primary barrier enclosed in a
secondary confinement
glovebox
Glovebox tritium removal system
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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4.1.1.a(2)(a) High‐Quality Secondary Containers
Some operations are equipped with high‐quality, double‐walled pressure vessels. The outer
pressure vessel is the secondary containment system, and the inner container is the primary
container. This type of secondary containment system is generally used for storage of large
quantities of tritium of very high quality, and is certified at operating pressure to leak rates of less
than 10‐6 to 10‐7 cm3 He/s.
These high‐quality secondary containment systems safely store any tritium released from the
primary container for several days or weeks without a significant release to its environment. The
maximum quantity of tritium released from these high‐quality systems during a significant primary
container leak can be accurately estimated from the secondary containment system engineering
specifications.
The space between the primary vessel and the secondary container in these systems is usually
evacuated during service. If tritium is released into these spaces, there are no dilution gases
present, and the gas leaking from the secondary container is in the same form as the gas in the
primary container. If the gas released into this high‐quality secondary is 90 percent tritium, less
than 1 Ci of tritium will be released to the surrounding area for each four to 40 storage days.
Following a release into a high‐quality secondary container, the tritium can be recovered by
pumping it from the secondary container into another primary container. Several days can elapse
during the recovery process without a significant release of tritium to the environment.
4.1.1.a(2)(b) Medium‐Quality Secondary Container
It is not practical or possible to enclose all primary tritium containers inside high‐quality, non‐
Section 51
diluting, evacuated secondary containers. Gloveboxes, as discussed in 4.1.1.a, can be utilized in
both secondary containment and secondary confinement systems. Figure 4‐2 illustrates one
example.
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Most primary containers can be enclosed in gloveboxes. The box gives access to the primary
containers for ease of operation and maintenance.
The leak rate of a glovebox can generally be certified to be no more than 10‐3 to 10‐4 cm3 He/s. In a
typical working environment, tritium gloveboxes are operated at near room pressure but slightly
negative, on the order of a few tenths of an inch of water column. Tritium gloveboxes do not
operate at the large differential pressures common with other gloveboxes through the DOE complex
such as those that house actinides and fission products. In Tritium gloveboxes it is important to
minimize the in‐leakage of air (oxygen) for flammability concerns (however no gloveboxes have
been operated with positive differential since 1991, when the Tritium Task Group 28 recommended
against this practice which was observed at the Salt Facility at Los Alamos). The low differential
pressure allows for less potential for in‐leakage than for the larger differentials gloveboxes but the
oxygen monitors in the tritium gloveboxes are usually still credited in the safety basis. Although the
glovebox is still negative with respect to the room, the tritium levels in the box are usually several
orders of magnitude greater than the tritium levels in the room and, due to the laws of partial
pressures, the movement of tritium due to permeation alone will always be from the box to the
room. To minimize the permeation of tritium from the box to the room, gloveports should be
covered and evacuated when they are not in use.
28 U.S Department of Energy, Report of the Task Group on Operation of Department of Energy Tritium
Facilities. October 1991.
8) Figure 4‐2: Secondary confinement
First wall
Primary barrier
Secondary barrier
Building
Stack
Volume of
secondary
system
evacuated
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In addition to oxygen monitors, most tritium gloveboxes are connected to cleanup systems designed
to remove undesired impurities from the glovebox gases and return clean gases back to the box.
One of the undesired impurities is tritium (as T2, HT, and/or HTO) itself. Although cleanup systems
are be designed to remove free tritium down to the part‐per‐million to part‐per‐billion level the
return gases from such cleanup systems will never be completely devoid of free tritium. In addition,
cleanup systems designed to remove free tritium from the glovebox gases are not capable of
removing tritium that has plated‐out on the interior surfaces of the glovebox or any of the
equipment that is inside the glovebox. Thus, when the box is opened to room air for maintenance
purposes, a “puff” type of tritium release will occur, such as that described in Section 2.3.5
“Outgassing”. The chemical form of the tritium release will be HTO.
Tritium permeation and diffusion through the elastomeric seals and gloves is reasonably well
known, and the tritium released from the glovebox during a primary container leak can be
accurately estimated.
If tritium is released into the glovebox, the gases in the glovebox are mixed with and dilute the
Section 52
tritium. The gases leaking from the glovebox are then in the form of tritium mixed with the
glovebox gases. Assuming a glovebox with a volume of 1 m3 and a release of 10 grams of tritium,
the glovebox concentration following the release will be 0.1 Ci/cm3. Even at the relatively high leak
rates of 10‐3 to 10‐4 cm3 He/s, approximately 0.1 Ci of tritium will be released for every 1,000 to
10,000 seconds of elapsed time. This is a release of approximately 1 Ci from the facility stack for
every 3 to 30 storage hours, which generally does not pose a significant health risk.
Following a release into a glovebox, the tritium is recovered in a tritium removal system. This low‐
level waste is in the form of water contaminated with tritium. Several hours can elapse during the
recovery process without a significant release of tritium to the environment.
4.1.1.a(2)(c) Low‐Quality Secondary Containers
Other facilities are equipped with lower‐quality systems such as rooms or buildings. It is difficult to
determine the leak rate of these low‐quality systems and, therefore, it is difficult to estimate the
quantity of tritium that will be released to the environment during a primary container leak.
If the secondary container is a room or building, the ventilation system could be shut off to reduce
the release of the tritium to the environment through the building stack when a release occurs. In
this case the released tritium contaminates the building. If a tritium cleanup system is available (in a
room or a building), the ventilation system is switched over to the recirculation mode to reduce the
amount of contamination. If a cleanup system is not available then a choice is made (ahead of time
so it is proceduralized and personnel are trained) whether to stack or contain the release.
For example, if there is no cleanup system and the ventilation system is shut off, assuming a 100 m3
(20 × 18 × 10 feet) building and a 1‐gram release to the building, the tritium concentration in the
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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building gases will be 0.0001 Ci/cm3. If the building is the containment barrier, it will leak
approximately 5 percent of its volume to the environment per hour; therefore, an environmental
tritium release of 500 Ci/hr will result. Cleanup of the building also is required in this scenario.
Even with a room or building cleanup system, a substantial fraction of the tritium released from the
primary containment system will be released to the environment before recovery is accomplished
due to the high leak rate of these low quality secondary systems. However, these low‐quality
systems still have a place in the tritium containment strategy. These room‐ or building‐type
systems, equipped with high flow rate tritium removal systems, are used in facilities where there are
no other feasible alternatives due to the large size of the equipment being enclosed.
4.1.1.a(3) Primary and Secondary Containers
The container‐within‐a‐container concept introduced above is applied in the tritium community in
various configurations. Figure 4‐3.a shows a building confinement system. Figure 4‐3.b shows an
arrangement consisting of a higher‐quality primary container with a lower‐quality secondary
container with indication or sampling capability from the annulus area to help detect whether the
primary is leaking. Before opening the secondary, the annulus area should be sampled and if a
Section 53
leaking primary is suspected from the sample or from the pressure indicator, then the container is
moved to within a glovebox or compensatory measures taken prior to opening. Depending on the
application and quality of the primary container, the secondary may not need to be a containment
barrier itself. The secondary’s for high quality primary containers are most often employed as a
physical protection barrier for the primary container. For example, the LP‐50 SARP29 states…“no
credit is taken for the seal on the shell in the safety analysis and no test of its seal tightness is made.
The secondary vessel is a mechanical protection barrier. For primary containers of questionable or
low quality, the secondary should provide a containment function as the probability of primary
container failure is higher.” Section 6.6 discusses the container requirements for interim storage of
tritium/ tritiated materials.
29 LP‐50 SARP, Safety Analysis Report for Packaging (SARP): USA/9507/BFL (ERDA‐AL), Model AL‐M1, MLM‐
2447, September 30, 1977.
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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10) Figure 4‐3.a: Building confinement system
4.1.2 Tritium Cleanup and Removal Systems
Current designs employ tritium removal systems. When tritium is released into a secondary, the
associated cleanup system starts, and the gases containing tritium are circulated through the
cleanup system, and the tritium is removed. See Figure 4‐4 for a diagram of a typical gas‐to‐water
conversion tritium removal system.
Building ventilation
system shuts down
following tritium release
into the building
Building
Stack
Tritium leak paths
Primary barrier
9) Figure 4‐3.b: Typical double
containment configuration
11) Figure 4‐4: Typical gas‐to‐water tritium removal system flow schematic
DOE‐STD‐1129‐2015
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If the cleanup system is associated with a high‐quality barrier (leak rate of less than 1 Ci of tritium in
a period of 4 to 40 days), tritium transfers to another container can take several days to complete
without a significant release of tritium to the environment. If the cleanup system is associated with
a medium quality barrier (leak rate of less than 1 Ci in 3 to 30‐hours), the cleanup system flow rate
needs to be high enough to remove tritium within a few hours in order to prevent a significant
release of tritium to the environment. If the cleanup system is associated with a low‐quality barrier
(leak rate of 8 Ci or more per minute), the cleanup system flow rate needs to be very high so that
tritium is removed from the gas before it is released to the environment.
The captured tritium is generally removed by circulating the gas through a system that removes
tritium down to the part‐per‐billion level. Typical present‐day cleanup systems remove tritium
by cracking the molecules on a hot catalyst. The free hydrogen atoms combine in the catalytic
reactor with the oxygen present to form water. The tritiated water is then removed from the gas
by molecular sieve traps. One example of this type of cleanup system that has been used
extensively in several different tritium facilities works as follows:
(1) Tritium is released into the secondary containment system (i.e., the glovebox) as a result of a
primary system failure
(2) The cleanup system is started and the tritium‐containing gases captured in the glovebox are
Section 54
circulated through the cleanup system
(3) The cleanup system removes the tritium from the gas stream by breaking down the hydrogen
(i.e., H, D, and T) containing molecules on a hot, precious metal catalyst
(4) The free H, D, and T atoms are recombined with oxygen in the catalytic reactor to form water
vapor
(5) The hot water vapor is cooled to a suitable temperature by passing the gas stream through one
or more heat exchangers
(6) The water is removed from the gas stream by passing the gas stream through molecular sieve
traps
Catalyst/molecular sieve tritium removal systems of this type can be very effective. Depending on
the tritiated species, the reduction in tritium concentration for such systems has been measured at
ratios of 10
6
:1 to 10
8
:1 when operated in a once‐through flow mode, in which the gas stream passes
from the glovebox, through the cleanup system, and out the stack to the environment. In most
situations, these types of cleanup systems are operated in the continuous flow mode, where the gas
stream is moved from the glovebox, through the cleanup system, and back to the glovebox. When
operated in the continuous flow mode, these types of cleanup systems can easily reduce the tritium
concentration in the gas stream to the parts‐per‐billion level (i.e., 2.6 mCi/ m
3
), or lower, as long as
they are operated for a sufficiently long period of time.
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The tritium released to the environment during this process is a function of the quantity of tritium
released, the volume and leak rate of the container, and the cleanup rate of the tritium removal
system.
There are several considerations in determining the adequacy of the tritium removal system. First is
the volume: the larger the volume, the longer it will take to remove tritium from the gases. Second
is the tritium removal system flow rate. This rate affects the time required to remove tritium from
the gases. The lower the flow rate, the longer it will take to remove tritium from the volume. Third
is the cleanup rate of the tritium removal system. This system is typically operated in a recirculating
mode, but may also be operated in a single‐pass mode. The tritium‐contaminated gases are
pumped through the tritium removal system, and the cleaned gases are either returned to the
volume or released to the environment.
In a large, complex system filled with equipment, it is difficult to know exactly how the returned or
make‐up gases will mix with gas in the system. The gas exit port should be spaced several feet away
from the return port. It could be assumed that gas flows through in a slug, like a piston, and that
only a single pass would be required to remove all of the tritium from the gases. Slug or piston
displacement flow, however, is unlikely, and a more common assumption is to assume that the
incoming tritium free gases exponentially dilute the gases.
If uniform mixing is assumed, the resulting dilution at any time, t, from an initial quantity (Q0) of
tritium due to operation of an air cleanup system can be estimated with standard exponential
methodology. The return air from the cleanup system is also assumed to be completely detriated.
ܳሺݐሻ ൌ ܳ ݁ିఒ௧
Where ܳ ൌ ܳሺݐ ൌ ሻ
where λ is the decay constant associated with the ventilation system equal to F/V, where F is the
flowrate of the tritium removal system and V is the volume of the room cleaned. The graph of an
Section 55
exponential decay process is illustrated in Figure 4.5.
The quantity of tritium vs time is depicted in terms of time constants τ or 1/λ. When t = one time
constant, roughly 63% of the tritium in the room as been removed; at 3 time constant, 95% removal
has been achieved.
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λ is a combination of three terms: λR (removal system) λL (leakage) to account for leakage from the
room to the environment and λD (radioactive decay) of tritium in the room, yielding
ܳ௧ ൌ ܳ ݁ି௧ሺఒೃశఒಽశఒವሻ
Since tritium’s radioactive half‐life is 12.3 years, λD is normally ignored; however, as discussed in
section 2.3.5, Outgassing, there could be some situations where outgassing can occur over a number
of months or even years (the Pantex release of 1989 discussed in Section 4.7.7 is an example of this
situation), in which λD can affect the calculated results; however, since ignoring the term is
conservative, there is little need for further consideration here; yielding
ܳ௧ ൌ ܳ ݁ି௧ሺఒೃశఒಽሻ
Note that the terms λR and λL both reduce the quantity of tritium in the room. In order to reduce
the amount of tritium leaking to the environment for any given room configuration with an
associated leak path factor, the tritium removal system flowrate (F) must be increased. Design of
room and cleanup systems is an iterative process with a higher flow rate cleanup system
compensating for a leaky room and vice‐versa.
12) Figure 4‐5: graph of an exponential decay process
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.00
Time
t = τ t = 2τ t = 3τ
Q(t)/ Qo = e-λt
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4.1.3 Future Directions in Tritium Removal and Cleanup
Future tritium facilities should analyze the applicability of confinement systems in their facilities.
For example, DOE O 420.1C states,
Confinement design must include the following:
a. For a specific nuclear facility, the number, arrangement, and characteristics of
confinement barriers as determined on a case‐by case basis.
b. The type, quantity, form, and conditions for dispersing the radioactive material in the
confinement system design.
c. An active confinement ventilation system as the preferred design approach for
nuclear facilities with potential for radiological release [footnote omitted]. Alternate
confinement approaches may be acceptable if a technical evaluation demonstrates
that the alternate confinement approach results in very high assurance of the
confinement of radioactive materials.
The guidance for confinement ventilation systems and evaluation of the alternatives, is provided
in DOE Guide (G) 420.1‐1A, Nonreactor Nuclear Safety Design Guide for Use with DOE O 420.1C,
Facility Safety.
As regulatory release criteria and ALARA concerns are strengthened, the desirability of barriers
increases. Many past confinement systems were of the glovebox and room or building design. One
disadvantage of these systems is that tritium is converted to oxide, which must eventually be
handled and disposed (with the attendant risks). Room‐ or building‐type confinement systems were
used in some tritium facilities such as in the T‐building at Mound, in TFTR at Princeton Plasma
Physics Laboratory (PPPL), and in TSTA and Weapons Engineering Tritium Facility (WETF) at Los
Alamos. If the system is not very close to 100 percent efficient, the released oxide (which is about
Section 56
10,000 times more toxic than the gas) could give an overall detriment (e.g., if 10,000 Ci of gas are
collected, but only one Ci of oxide is released by the system, the whole operation is just a draw).
Some current designs, notably the cleanup systems at the SRS H‐Area New Manufacturing Facility,
make use of gettering without oxidation. The primary advantage of these getter systems is that
tritium is removed and stored in elemental form and is not converted by the tritium removal system
to the more radiotoxic tritiated water. The application for glovebox atmospheres is good; however,
severe challenges for removing tritium from room atmospheres with the required flow rates, while
not fouling the getters, appear less promising. Research into other than metal (e.g., fullerene)
gettering material has been sponsored by DOE in the past; subsequently, fullerenes have been
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examined for hydrogen storage for the Hydrogen Economy30. Results indicate that stored tritium is
stable for almost 10 years. The Loutfy et al. reference in section 1.4 presents an excellent overview
on fullerenes.
It is possible that advances in design will make room or building‐type confinement systems
desirable, or it may turn out that these cleanup systems in general are found not to be cost‐
effective, and that a better use of resources to decrease environmental releases could be made by
upgrading the existing primary and secondary systems. Additionally, there may be future glovebox
decisions in which the oxidation process is still chosen over the gettering process due to
programmatic reasons. There is no compelling agreement at this time to use room or building
cleanup systems.
4.1.4 Inspection and Surveillance Requirements
Instrumentation should be provided to monitor the leak‐tight integrity of process piping, tanks, and
other equipment. The surveillance measurements may include those of pressure differentials or
flow rates that relate to the design leak rate. Radiation monitoring instrumentation may be used to
qualitatively assess changes in leak rate.
4.2 Separation and Purification of Tritium
Isotopes have very similar chemical properties; therefore, their separation is, in general, more
difficult than chemical separation. Thermal diffusion, fractional absorption, and cryogenic
distillation have been used to separate tritium from protium and deuterium. Cryogenic distillation is
the most proven separation technology; it is currently used in various locations including the
Darlington Tritium Removal System and is the baseline for ITER. Cryogenic distillation is truly
continuous and easily scalable. Gaseous thermal diffusion, especially for smaller scale operations,
has been used successfully in several countries. Other separation techniques are also in use.
Materials such as palladium were known having hydrogen isotopic effects shortly after the discovery
of deuterium in 1931 and tritium in 1934. Batch palladium chromatography for hydrogen isotope
separation dates to the 1950s. However, a “continuous” process using Pd chromatographic
separation did not appear for half a century until Dr. Myung W. Lee of Savannah River National
Laboratory (SRNL, then called SRL) originated the breakthrough concept of a “continuous”
chromatographic separation process in 1979. The process was successfully developed into a
Section 57
working unit in the 1980s and subsequently named the Thermal Cycling Absorption Process (TCAP).
Because TCAP demonstrated unequivocal advantages, it has gradually replaced all other separation
processes for hydrogen isotope production and is currently the sole process of purifying tritium at
SRS.
30 R.O. Loutfy, E. M. Wexler. Feasibility of Fullerene Hydride as a High Capacity Hydrogen Storage Material,
Proceedings of the 2001 DOE Hydrogen Program Review, DOE 2001.
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TCAP is a gas chromatograph in principle using palladium in the column packing, but it is unique in
the fact that the carrier gas—hydrogen—is being isotopically separated and the system is operated
in a semi‐continuous manner. The aspects of hydride technology that provide interim hydrogen
storage, generate pressure, and create a vacuum have been innovatively applied to create the TCAP
process. During operation, thermal cycling moves gas back and forth in the Pd/k column, achieving
efficient isotope separation at each of the column’s separation stages.
During each cycle, a gas mixture is fed into the Pd/k column, and pure product and raffinate are
withdrawn from the two ends of the column. The TCAP invention is an engineering achievement
with simple design and advanced control logic and is suitable for radioactive confinement. A simple
on/off valve is the only mechanical moving part. The robust design presents features of inherent
safety and extra‐long life. It can be scaled from very small to large with versatility depending on
throughput. Testing has demonstrated that TCAP can separate the naturally occurring 150 ppm D2
in a standard hydrogen cylinder, thus producing pure protium.
4.3 Building Ventilation System
If tritium does penetrate its barriers, it can be released into the worker breathing space. In this
scenario, the ventilation system should be designed to meet the following objectives:
Move released tritium from the worker breathing space as soon as possible;
Minimize the contamination of other areas while moving released tritium;
Release the tritium‐contaminated gases at an elevation and velocity that will result in massive
dilution and mixing with outside air before the tritium reaches ground level.
The ventilation system may be designed using the following guidelines:
The ventilation system can be a single‐pass ventilation system. Outside air is brought in
through a supply fan, conditioned for the comfort of the workers, passes through the ductwork
to the ventilated spaces one time, goes through the exhaust ductwork to an exhaust fan, and is
released to the environment through the facility stack. Room recirculation designs can also be
used in conjunction with single‐pass ventilation systems, the design and desirability of which is
discussed in Sections 4.1.2 and 4.1.3;
The air supply and exhaust systems should be designed to eliminate dead air spaces where
tritium‐contaminated gases may accumulate;
The ventilation system ductwork should not be shared with non‐tritium operations;
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To minimize cross‐contamination from one room to another, the exhaust gas from each room
should dump into a central exhaust duct. Exhaust gases from several rooms should not be
combined before being dumped into the central exhaust duct;
To minimize cross‐contamination from one ventilation function to another, the gases for each
type of function, such as room ventilation, high velocity air hood ventilation, and glovebox
ventilation, from a single room should not be combined until they reach the central exhaust
duct;
To ensure good mixing and dilution by outside air, the exhaust gases should be released to the
environment through an elevated stack at high velocity;
The ventilation system should be designed to use pressure zone co